For calculations of Isotonicity in a solution (matching the osmotic pressure of physiological fluids like blood or tears, ~290 mOsmol/kg), you need to calculate and adjust the solution’s osmolarity using an isotonicity-adjusting substance. Steps for Calculations of Isotonicity: 1) Determine the Osmolarity of the Test Solution: Calculate the molar concentration of each solute and consider how … Read more
Measurements of Tonicity can be assessed by measuring osmolality or osmolarity, which indicate the concentration of solute particles in a solution. Two common methods for measuring osmolality, and subsequently assessing tonicity, are the haemolytic method and the cryoscopic method. Haemolytic Method of Measurements of tonicity: A biological technique that assesses the tonicity of a solution … Read more
Tonicity refers to the relative concentration of solutes in a solution compared to another solution separated by a semipermeable membrane, like a cell membrane. It measures the osmotic pressure gradient between the two solutions and influences the movement of water across the membrane, affecting cellular behavior. Types of Tonicity Isotonic: Definition: The solution has the … Read more
Buffered isotonic solutions maintain both a stable pH and an osmotic pressure similar to that of physiological fluids, such as blood and tears. These solutions are essential in pharmaceutical and medical applications (e.g., injections, ophthalmic, and nasal preparations) to minimize irritation and prevent tissue damage during administration. Key Properties of Buffered Isotonic Solutions: 1) Buffering … Read more
Buffers in pharmaceutical systems play a crucial role in maintaining the stability, efficacy, and safety of pharmaceutical products by controlling pH levels. Importance of Buffers in Pharmaceutical Systems 1) pH Control: Buffers maintain consistent pH levels, affecting drug stability, solubility, and absorption. 2) Stability: Many drugs degrade or precipitate with pH fluctuations. Buffers prevent this … Read more
A buffer solution resists significant changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added or when diluted. Buffers are crucial in biological systems, industrial processes, and analytical chemistry. Types of Buffer Solutions: Acidic Buffer: Contains a weak acid and its conjugate base (e.g., acetic acid and sodium acetate). The weak acid neutralizes … Read more
Acid and Base theory contains 3 main concepts that is Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry & Lewis concept, these are listed below Arrhenius Concept: Acids: Substances that dissociate in water to produce hydrogen ions (H⁺). Bases: Substances that dissociate in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH⁻). Example: Acid: HCl(aq) → H⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq) Base: NaOH(aq) → Na⁺(aq) + … Read more
Acids, bases and buffers are essential concepts in chemistry and play critical roles in various biological and industrial processes. Acids: Acids are substances that donate hydrogen ions (H⁺) or protons when dissolved in water. They typically have a sour taste and can be corrosive to metals. Acids can be classified into two main categories: Strong … Read more
The modified limit test for sulfate is based on gravimetric analysis, where sulfate ions (SO₄²⁻) are precipitated as barium sulfate (BaSO₄) using barium chloride (BaCl₂). The precipitate is then collected, dried, and weighed to determine the sulfate concentration. Chemical Reaction: Ba2+(aq) + SO₄2−(aq) → BaSO₄(s) Procedure for Limit Test for Sulfate: Prepare Test Solution: Prepare … Read more
The modified limit test for chloride is based on the Volhard titration method, where chloride ions (Cl⁻) are precipitated with silver nitrate (AgNO₃) and the excess silver nitrate is titrated with ammonium thiocyanate (NH₄SCN). The process involves two key reactions: Chemical Reactions of Limit Test for Chloride: Precipitation of Chloride Ions: Ag + (aq) + … Read more
