Acquired anemias result from external factors or conditions that affect RBC production or lifespan. Common Types Acquired Anemia Iron Deficiency Anemia Due to inadequate iron intake, absorption issues, or chronic blood loss. Vitamin B12 and Folate Deficiency Anemia Caused by poor dietary intake, malabsorption, or increased demand. Anemia of Chronic Disease Associated with chronic infections, … Read more
Iron Deficiency Anemia Introduction Iron Deficiency Anemia occurs the body lacks enough iron to produce hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells (RBCs) that carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. Iron is a critical component of hemoglobin, and its deficiency leads to reduced RBC production and anemia. Causes of Iron … Read more
Megaloblastic Anemia Introduction Megaloblastic anemia is a type of anemia characterized by the presence of large, abnormal red blood cells (megaloblasts) in the bone marrow and peripheral blood. It is primarily caused by deficiencies in vitamin B12 or folic acid, both essential for DNA synthesis. Causes of Megaloblastic Anemia: Vitamin B12 Deficiency Dietary Deficiency: Insufficient … Read more
Sickle Cell Anemia Introduction Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation in the HBB gene, which encodes the beta-globin subunit of hemoglobin. This mutation leads to the production of abnormal hemoglobin known as hemoglobin S (HbS). Under low oxygen conditions, HbS polymerizes, causing red blood cells (RBCs) to become rigid and … Read more
Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures due to abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Seizures can vary in type and severity, ranging from brief lapses in attention or muscle jerks to severe and prolonged convulsions. Causes of Epilepsy Genetic Factors: Certain types of epilepsy are linked to genetic mutations. Structural … Read more
Chronic renal failure, also known as chronic kidney disease (CKD), is a gradual and progressive decline in kidney function that occurs over months to years. CKD can eventually lead to end-stage renal disease (ESRD), in which the kidneys are no longer able to function adequately to maintain the body’s homeostasis. ESRD requires renal replacement therapy, … Read more
Acute renal failure, also known as acute kidney injury (AKI), is a sudden and rapid decline in kidney function that occurs over a short period, usually within hours to days. It can result in the buildup of waste products, electrolyte imbalances, and fluid retention in the body, which can be life-threatening if not promptly treated. … Read more
Morphological Classification of Bacteria is based on their morphology (shape), arrangement, staining properties, and other characteristics. Here are the main types of morphological classification: Based on Shape: Cocci: Spherical bacteria. Diplococci: Pairs of cocci (e.g., Neisseria). Streptococci: Chains of cocci (e.g., Streptococcus). Staphylococci: Clusters of cocci (e.g., Staphylococcus). Tetrads: Groups of four cocci (e.g., Micrococcus). … Read more
Chronic Obstructive Airway Diseases Introduction Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a group of progressive lung diseases characterized by persistent airflow limitation and increased inflammation in the airways. It primarily includes two main conditions: Chronic Bronchitis: Inflammation of the bronchi leading to increased mucus production and airway narrowing, resulting in a persistent cough often called … Read more
Asthma is a chronic respiratory condition characterized by inflammation and narrowing of the airways (bronchi) that carry air in and out of the lungs. This inflammation and constriction can cause episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing, particularly at night or early in the morning. Asthma affects people of all ages, but it often … Read more
