Principles of Vacuum Dryer A vacuum dryer operates on the principle of reducing the pressure around the material to be dried, which lowers the boiling point of water and other solvents. This allows drying at lower temperatures, which is advantageous for heat-sensitive materials. Construction of Vacuum Dryer Vacuum Chamber: An airtight chamber capable of withstanding … Read more
Principles of Fluidized Bed Dryer The fluidized bed dryer operates on the principle of fluidization, where hot air is passed through a perforated bed of wet solids, causing the solids to behave like a fluid. This enhances the contact between the hot air and the material, leading to efficient drying. Construction of Fluidized Bed Dryer … Read more
Principles of Super Centrifuge The super centrifuge, also known as an ultracentrifuge, operates on the principle of generating extremely high centrifugal forces to separate particles based on very small differences in density. These centrifuges can achieve speeds much higher than conventional centrifuges, enabling the separation of sub-micron particles and molecules. Construction of Super Centrifuge Rotor/Bowl: … Read more
Principles of Semi-Continuous Centrifuge The semi-continuous centrifuge operates on the principle of centrifugal force to separate components of a slurry based on density differences. Unlike batch centrifuges, semi-continuous centrifuges allow for periodic discharge of solids without stopping the entire process, providing a balance between continuous and batch processing. Construction of Semi-Continuous Centrifuge Rotor/Basket: Typically, a … Read more
Preparation of Iodine: It is usually extracted from natural sources such as seaweed or brine, which contain iodide ions. The iodide is oxidized to iodine using an oxidizing agent such as chlorine: 2I− + Cl2 → I2 + 2Cl− Properties of Iodine: Dark purple-black solid with a metallic cluster. Slightly soluble in water but highly … Read more
Preparation of Chlorinated Lime: Prepared by passing chlorine gas through slaked lime (calcium hydroxide): 2Ca(OH)2 + 2Cl2 → Ca(ClO)2 + CaCl2 + 2H2O2 Properties: White to grayish-white powder with a chlorine-like odor. Soluble in water, forming a clear solution. Strong oxidizing and bleaching agent. Chemical formula: Ca(ClO)₂. Uses: As a disinfectant for water purification and … Read more
Preparation of Hydrogen Peroxide: Industrially, It is prepared by the anthraquinone process, where anthraquinone is hydrogenated to form anthrahydroquinone, which reacts with oxygen to produce H2O2: $\mathrm{C_6H_4(CO)_2(CH_2)_2 + H_2 \rightarrow C_6H_4(COH)_2(CH_2)_2}$ $\mathrm{C_6H_4(COH)_2(CH_2)_2 + O_2 \rightarrow C_6H_4(CO)_2(CH_2)_2 + H_2O_2}$ Properties of Hydrogen Peroxide: Colorless liquid with a slightly sharp odor. Miscible with water in all proportions. … Read more
Preparation of Boric Acid: It is prepared by reacting borax (sodium tetraborate decahydrate) with a mineral acid such as hydrochloric acid: $\mathrm{Na_2B_4O_7 \cdot 10H_2O + 2HCl \rightarrow 4H_3BO_3 + 2NaCl + 5H_2O}$ Properties of Boric Acid: White, odorless crystalline powder. Slightly soluble in cold water and more soluble in hot water. Weakly acidic, with mild … Read more
Preparation of Potassium Permanganate: it is industrially prepared by reacting manganese dioxide (MnO₂) with potassium hydroxide (KOH) and a strong oxidizing agent like potassium nitrate (KNO₃) or oxygen. The mixture is heated to form potassium manganate (K₂MnO₄), which is then oxidized to potassium permanganate: $2\mathrm{MnO}_2 + 4\mathrm{KOH} + \mathrm{O}_2 \rightarrow 2\mathrm{K}_2\mathrm{MnO}_4 + 2\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{O}_2$ $3\mathrm{K}_2\mathrm{MnO}_4 + … Read more
Introduction to Antimicrobials: Antimicrobials are agents that kill microorganisms or inhibit their growth, playing a critical role in treating and preventing infections in humans, animals, and plants. This group includes antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, and antiparasitics, each with varying mechanisms of action depending on the type of microorganism they target. Mechanism of Action of Antimicrobials: Antimicrobials … Read more
