Spermatogenesis is a complex, highly organized process of sperm cell (spermatozoon) production in males. It occurs within the seminiferous tubules of the testes, the male reproductive organs responsible for sperm and testosterone production. This process is critical for sexual reproduction and involves several stages, each marked by specific cellular transformations under the influence of various … Read more
Menstruation is the cyclic shedding of the uterine lining (endometrium) in response to hormonal fluctuations that occur during a woman’s menstrual cycle. The cycle is typically divided into four phases: 1. Menstrual Phase (Days 1-5): The menstrual phase marks the beginning of the cycle. Hormonal changes: Decreasing levels of estrogen and progesterone from the previous … Read more
Sex hormone are hormones that are responsible for the development and regulation of sexual characteristics and functions. They include Estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone, which are produced by the ovaries and testes respectively, as well as other hormones such as luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) that regulate their production. Male sex hormones Male sex … Read more
Principle of Steam Distillation: It is used to distil heat-sensitive components by passing steam through the mixture, causing volatile components to co-distil with water at temperatures lower than their boiling points. Methodology of Steam Distillation: Setup: Includes a steam generator, distillation flask, condenser, and collection vessel. Steam Introduction: Steam is introduced into the mixture, lowering … Read more
Principle of Fractional Distillation: Fractional distillation separates components of a mixture with close boiling points by using a fractionating column to achieve repeated condensation and vaporization cycles. Methodology of Fractional Distillation: Setup: Similar to simple distillation but includes a fractionating column between the distillation flask and the condenser. Heating: The mixture is heated, and vapours … Read more
Principle of Molecular Distillation: Molecular distillation is a type of vacuum distillation performed at extremely low pressures, allowing the distillation of high molecular weight, thermally unstable compounds. It involves a short path between the evaporator and the condenser. Methodology of Molecular Distillation: Setup: Includes a high vacuum system, short-path distillation apparatus, and a cold trap. … Read more
Principle of Vacuum Distillation: Distillation under reduced pressure (vacuum distillation) lowers the boiling points of the components in the mixture by reducing the ambient pressure, allowing distillation to occur at lower temperatures. Methodology of Vacuum Distillation: Setup: Similar to simple or fractional distillation but includes a vacuum pump to reduce the pressure in the apparatus. … Read more
The breast, or mammary gland, is a paired, modified sweat gland located on the anterior thoracic wall. Its primary biological function is to produce and secrete milk to nourish infants, a process known as lactation. The breast is composed of glandular tissue (lobes and lobules), connective tissue (including fat), ducts that transport milk to the … Read more
The female reproductive system consists of internal and external organs that function together for reproduction, hormone regulation, and the menstrual cycle. These organs are categorized into primary and accessory Primary Organ: Ovaries: The primary reproductive organs in female reproductive system responsible for producing ova (eggs) and secreting the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Each ovary contains … Read more
Economy of Multiple Effect Evaporator: Defined as the amount of steam required to evaporate a given amount of water. Steam Economy = kg of water evaporated / kg of steam used. In a single-effect evaporator, the steam economy is approximately 1. In multiple effect evaporators, the steam economy improves significantly, often reaching values of 3-6, … Read more
