Month: July 2025

Adrenergic receptors (Alpha & Beta) and their distribution

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Adrenergic receptors (Alpha & Beta) and their distribution

Adrenergic receptors are G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that mediate the effects of norepinephrine and epinephrine. Adrenergic receptors are classified into Alpha (α) and Beta (β) receptors, with further subtypes. Alpha-Adrenergic Receptors (α-Receptors) These receptors mainly mediate vasoconstriction and smooth muscle contraction. α1-Receptors (Gq-coupled) Mechanism: Activate phospholipase C (PLC) → Increase IP3 & DAG → Increase intracellular … Read more

Catecholamines Catabolism (Degradation)

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Catabolism (Degradation) of Catecholamines

Catecholamines are degraded primarily by Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) and Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) into inactive metabolites, which are excreted in urine. Steps of Catecholamines Catabolism MAO Pathway: MAO (located in neuronal mitochondria) oxidizes catecholamines into dihydroxyphenylglycol aldehyde. This is further converted into vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) for excretion. COMT Pathway: COMT methylates catecholamines to form metanephrine and normetanephrine. … Read more

Hard gelatin capsules

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Hard gelatin capsules

Introduction to Hard Gelatin Capsules: Definition: Capsules are solid dosage forms in which the drug substance (active pharmaceutical ingredient, API) and excipients are enclosed in a soluble container or shell. These capsules are cylindrical shells made from gelatin, designed to hold solid or semi-solid drugs. They consist of a cap and body that lock together … Read more

Histamine Receptor

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Histamine Receptor

This article explains about the histamine receptor their types functions and how they influence allergic reactions immune responses and other physiological effects. Histamine Receptor: Histamine exerts its effects by binding to four types of histamine receptors, all of which are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs): H₁ Receptor H₂ Receptor H₃ Receptor H₄ Receptor Each receptor subtype … Read more

Classification of antihistamine

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Classification of antihistamine

Below we have described the classification of antihistamine based on receptor type and generation with their roles in allergy relief and related conditions. Classification of antihistamine: The medications listed can be classified into three main categories: H1-antagonists (antihistamines), H2-antagonists (histamine H2 receptor blockers), and gastric proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs). Below is a proper classification of each: … Read more

H-1 antagonists

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H-1 antagonists

Discover how H-1 antagonists work to treat allergies by blocking histamine receptors and explore their types and common uses. H1 antagonists, also known as H1 blockers or antihistamines, are a class of drugs that inhibit the action of histamine at the H1 receptor sites. They are widely used to treat various allergic conditions and are … Read more

Production Procedure

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Production Procedure

Introduction to Production Procedure: Production Procedure involves precise compounding, dissolution, and pH adjustment under aseptic conditions to ensure sterility and stability. Production Procedure includes sterile filtration, filling, sealing, and terminal sterilization followed by stringent quality checks to ensure safety and compliance. The production of parenteral products involves several meticulously controlled steps to ensure safety, efficacy, … Read more

Eye Drops

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Eye Drops

Introduction to Eye Drops: Eye Drops must be isotonic, pH-balanced, and preservative-free (for sensitive use), ensuring safety and effectiveness. Eye drops are sterile liquid preparations containing the drug in a solution or suspension form. They are the most commonly used ophthalmic formulations. Components: Active Ingredient: The drug, e.g., antibiotics, anti-inflammatory agents, or antihistamines. Vehicle: Aqueous … Read more

Containers for Ophthalmic Preparations

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Containers for Ophthalmic Preparations

Containers for Ophthalmic Preparations are specialized sterile containers designed to maintain product sterility, stability, and accurate dosing. Containers for Ophthalmic Preparations must be non-reactive, tamper-evident, and suitable for single or multiple use. Selecting appropriate containers is vital to ensure sterility, stability, and usability: Containers for Ophthalmic Preparation: Dropper Bottles (Low-Density Polyethylene – LDPE) Commonly used … Read more

Formulation of Sterile Powders

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Formulation of Sterile Powders

Formulation of Sterile Powders involves designing dry, aseptic drug products for reconstitution before injection, ensuring stability and sterility. Formulation of Sterile Powders requires strict aseptic processing, suitable excipients, and lyophilization to maintain product integrity. Sterile powders are prepared by removing moisture from a solution or suspension to produce a dry product that can be reconstituted … Read more