Biosynthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotide is the biochemical process through which cells produce pyrimidine bases cytosine, thymine, and uracil used to form nucleotides such as UMP (uridine monophosphate), CMP (cytidine monophosphate), and TMP (thymidine monophosphate). Biosynthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotide is synthesized first and then attached to a ribose-phosphate backbone. De Novo Pathway The de novo synthesis of pyrimidines … Read more
Biosynthesis of Purine Nucleotide refers to the cellular process by which purine nucleotides primarily adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and guanosine monophosphate (GMP) are synthesized from small molecular precursors. Biosynthesis of Purine Nucleotide pathway involves the stepwise construction of the purine ring directly onto a ribose sugar molecule (from PRPP: 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate), utilizing amino acids (like glycine, glutamine, and … Read more
hyperbilirubinemia (excess bilirubin in the bloodstream) and jaundice (the yellow discoloration resulting from that excess), emphasizing the underlying cause and its visible clinical manifestation together. Hyperbilirubinemia: Definition: Hyperbilirubinemia is characterized by an elevated concentration of bilirubin in the bloodstream. It arises due to either: Increased Bilirubin Production: Occurs hyperbilirubinemia (excess bilirubin in the bloodstream) and jaundice (the yellow … Read more
Definition of Polymerization: Polymerization is the linking of monomer units to form larger molecular structures, which can cause undesirable changes in drug properties. Examples: Example Reaction (Addition Polymerization of Formaldehyde): n(HCHO) → (–CH₂–O–)ₙ Example Reaction (Condensation Polymerization of Amino Acids): RCOOH + R’NH₂ → RCONHR’ + H₂O Prevention Strategies of Polymerization: Use stabilizers and appropriate … Read more
Estimations of magnesium sulfate by complexometric titration involves titrating with EDTA using Eriochrome Black T as an indicator to determine magnesium content. Introduction of Estimation of Magnesium Sulfate by Complexometric Titration: Estimation of Magnesium Sulfate by Complexometric Titration In pharmaceutical analysis, the estimations of magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄) is done using complexometric titration with EDTA as … Read more
Introduction of Estimation of Calcium Gluconate by Complexometric Titration: Estimation of Calcium Gluconate by Complexometric Titration in pharmaceutical analysis, calcium gluconate (Ca(C₆H₁₁O₇)₂) is estimated using complexometric titration with EDTA as the titrant. The titration is based on the formation of a stable complex between EDTA and calcium ions (Ca²⁺). Apparatus and Reagents: Burette Erlenmeyer flask … Read more
Catabolism of heme is the process by which the heme molecule is broken down into simpler compounds. Catabolism of heme process primarily occurs in the liver and spleen and involves several key steps: Heme Oxygenase (HO): Reaction: Heme is broken down into biliverdin, carbon monoxide (CO), and free ferrous iron (Fe²⁺). Enzyme: Heme oxygenase (HO). Cofactors: … Read more
Definition of Racemization: Racemization is the interconversion of enantiomers (optical isomers) that can lead to changes in biological activity. Mechanism: A chiral molecule can transform into its mirror-image isomer under certain conditions (pH, temperature, etc.). Examples: Example Reaction (Racemization of Amino Acids): L-AminoAcid —[pH, temperature]→ D-AminoAcid Thalidomide: One enantiomer is … Read more
Adrenaline (also known as Epinephrine) a hormone and neurotransmitter produced by the adrenal glands, located on top of the kidneys. It plays a key role in the body’s “fight or flight” response by increasing heart rate, expanding airways, dilating pupils, and mobilizing energy stores. It prepares the body to respond quickly to stressful or dangerous … Read more
Definition of Reduction: Reduction is the gain of electrons or loss of oxygen, often resulting in undesirable changes in drug activity or color. Examples: Example Reaction (Reduction of Nitro Compounds): RNO₂ + 6[H] → RNH₂ + 2H₂O Example Reaction (Reduction of Ketones to Alcohols): RCOR’ + 2[H] → RCHOH–R’ Prevention Strategies: Incorporate antioxidants or reducing … Read more
