Definition of Reduction: Reduction is the gain of electrons or loss of oxygen, often resulting in undesirable changes in drug activity or color. Examples: Example Reaction (Reduction of Nitro Compounds): RNO₂ + 6[H] → RNH₂ + 2H₂O Example Reaction (Reduction of Ketones to Alcohols): RCOR’ + 2[H] → RCHOH–R’ Prevention Strategies: Incorporate antioxidants or reducing … Read more
Noradrenaline, also known as norepinephrine, is a neurotransmitter and hormone involved in the body’s “fight or flight” response. It is produced primarily in the adrenal medulla and nerve endings of the sympathetic nervous system. Synthesis: Conversion from Dopamine of Noradrenaline: Enzyme: Dopamine β-hydroxylase. Process: Dopamine is hydroxylated to (norepinephrine). Cofactor Required: Ascorbic acid (vitamin C). … Read more
Definition: It is a chemical change involving electron loss, oxygen addition, or an increase in oxidation number during a reaction This process is essential in energy release, biological metabolism, corrosion, and many industrial applications. Mechanism: Free radicals generated by heat, light, or metal ions initiate chain reactions, resulting in oxidative degradation. Examples: Example Reaction (Phenol … Read more
Dopamine helps transmit signals between nerve cells and is involved in how we feel pleasure. It’s often called the “feel-good” chemical, especially in the context of reward-driven behavior. Synthesis of Dopamine: Step 1: Conversion to L-DOPA: Enzyme: Tyrosine hydroxylase. Process: Tyrosine is hydroxylated to form L-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA). Cofactors Required: Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) and oxygen. Mechanism: BH4 … Read more
Melatonin is a natural hormone produced by the pineal gland in the brain that helps regulate the body’s sleep-wake cycle, also known as the circadian rhythm. Synthesis of Melatonin: Step 1: Conversion to N-acetylserotonin: Enzyme: Arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT). Process: Serotonin is acetylated to form N-acetylserotonin. Mechanism: AANAT transfers an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to serotonin, … Read more
Definition of Hydrolysis: Hydrolysis is the decomposition or breakdown of a compound due to its reaction with water. It is the most common form of chemical degradation in pharmaceuticals, especially for drugs containing esters, amides, lactones, and lactams. Mechanism: The drug molecule reacts with water, leading to cleavage of chemical bonds (e.g., ester bonds) and … Read more
Serotonin (5-HT) is a chemical messenger (neurotransmitter) primarily found in the brain, blood platelets, and the digestive system. It plays a key role in regulating mood, emotion, sleep, appetite, digestion, and various other physiological functions. Serotonin is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan and is often associated with feelings of well-being and happiness. Synthesis of … Read more
Tyrosine Catabolism involves breaking down the amino acid tyrosine into simpler, usable compounds through a series of biochemical reactions: Tyrosine Aminotransferase (TAT): Reaction: Tyrosine is converted into p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate. Mechanism: The enzyme tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) transfers an amino group from tyrosine to alpha-ketoglutarate, resulting in p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate and glutamate. p-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate Dioxygenase (HPPD): Reaction: p-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate is converted into homogentisate. … Read more
Phenylalanine catabolism is a crucial metabolic process that breaks down the amino acid phenylalanine into simpler compounds for use by the body. This process involves a series of biochemical reactions, primarily resulting in the production of tyrosine, which is further metabolized into substances that participate in key metabolic pathways. Main Steps in Phenylalanine Catabolism: Conversion … Read more
Urea cycle disorders (UCDs) are genetic conditions resulting from deficiencies in one of the enzymes involved in the urea cycle. These Urea Cycle Disorders lead to the accumulation of ammonia and other toxic substances in the blood, causing serious health issues. Here’s a brief overview of the main disorders: Carbamoyl Phosphate Synthetase I Deficiency (CPS … Read more
