Ketone bodies are water-soluble molecules produced by the liver as an alternative energy source when glucose is scarce, such as during fasting, prolonged exercise, or a low-carbohydrate diet. The three main ketone bodies are acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), and acetone. Formation of ketone bodies (ketogenesis): Location: Mitochondria of liver cells When glucose levels are low, fatty … Read more
β-Oxidation is the primary pathway for breaking down fatty acids to generate energy. In this process, fatty acids are converted into acetyl-CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) to produce ATP. Here’s a detailed explanation of the beta-oxidation of palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid with 16 carbons (C16:0). 1. Activation and Transport into … Read more
Polymorphism is the ability of a solid material, particularly a drug, to exist in more than one crystalline form, each having distinct physical and chemical properties such as melting point, solubility, and stability. Polymorphism Types: Enantiotropic Polymorphs: Can reversibly transform from one form to another based on temperature or pressure. Monotropic Polymorphs: Irreversible transformation; one … Read more
Masking and demasking are techniques used to selectively protect or reveal certain ions or functional groups during chemical reactions or analysis. These techniques are particularly useful in complex mixtures to control the reactivity of specific components and prevent unwanted side reactions. 1. Masking: Masking involves temporarily protecting a specific ion or group by forming a … Read more
Metal ion indicators, also known as chelating indicators or metallochromic indicators, are organic compounds that form colored complexes with metal ions. They are used in complexometric titrations to detect the endpoint, which occurs when all the metal ions in the sample have reacted with the chelating agent. Indicators are selected based on their ability to … Read more
Flow properties describe how powders or granules move under force, critical for efficient processing in pharmaceutical and industrial applications. Good flow properties ensure uniform mixing, accurate dosing, and smooth manufacturing, reducing defects and improving product quality. Definition: The ability of powder particles to flow under gravity or mechanical force. Factors Affecting Flow: Particle Size: Fine … Read more
Classification of Complexometric Titrations is based on the type of metal ion determined, the titration method used, and the nature of the indicator or masking agents involved. Direct Titration in Classification of Complexometric Titrations: In this method, metal ions in the sample are titrated directly with a chelating agent, such as EDTA. The endpoint is … Read more
Introduction of Complexometric Titration: It is a volumetric analysis technique used to determine the concentration of metal ions by forming a complex with a chelating agent (titrant). It is commonly applied in fields such as chemistry, environmental science, and pharmaceutical analysis, particularly for quantifying metal ions, especially transition metals. Principle of Complexometric Titration: The titration … Read more
Particle size and shape are critical physical parameters in pre-formulation studies that significantly influence the behavior and performance of pharmaceutical dosage forms. Particle size and shape determine the surface area, flowability, dissolution rate, and bioavailability of a drug, making them critical factors in pre-formulation and product design. Particle Size: Definition: Refers to the diameter or … Read more
Physical Form: Crystalline vs. Amorphous State- crystalline is ordered, amorphous is disordered. Physical form: Crystalline vs. Amorphous state indicates whether a drug has an ordered (crystalline) or disordered (amorphous) molecular structure, influencing formulation. The physical form of a drug describes its structural arrangement at the molecular level, which directly affects its solubility, stability, and bioavailability. … Read more
