Month: August 2025

Oral contraceptives (OCs) are medications taken by mouth to prevent pregnancy. Oral Contraceptives typically contain a combination of estrogens and progestins or progestin-only formulations. Types: Combined Oral Contraceptive (COCs): Contain both estrogen and progestin (e.g., ethinylestradiol and levonorgestrel). Progestin-Only Pills (POPs): Contain only progestin (e.g., norethindrone). Mechanism of Action: Inhibition of Ovulation: Suppression of the … Read more

Definition of Progesterone: Progesterone is a female sex hormone essential for the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and embryogenesis. Physiology: Secreted primarily by the corpus luteum in the ovary and the placenta during pregnancy. Roles: Prepares and maintains the endometrium for implantation. Decreases uterine contractions. Thickens cervical mucus to prevent sperm penetration. Pharmacological Agents: Progesterones: Natural form … Read more

 Definition of Estrogens: Estrogens are female sex hormones essential for reproductive tissue development, breast growth, and bone health.   Physiological Sources: Produced primarily by the ovaries (granulosa cells) and the placenta during pregnancy. Types of Estrogens: Endogenous: Estradiol (most potent), estrone, estriol. Exogenous (Synthetic): Ethinylestradiol, conjugated estrogens. Pharmacological Actions: Female Sexual Development: Growth and maturation … Read more

Definition of Anabolic Steroids: Anabolic steroids are synthetic derivatives of testosterone designed to maximize anabolic (muscle-building) effects while minimizing androgenic (masculinizing) Anabolic Steroid: Used medically for anemia, delayed puberty; misused in sports for performance enhancement. Physiological Roles: Promote muscle and bone growth with reduced androgenic activity. Examples: Nandrolone, Oxandrolone, Stanozolol. Pharmacological Actions: Anabolic Actions: Promote … Read more

Definition of Androgens: Androgens are male sex hormones responsible for developing and maintaining male characteristics. The primary endogenous androgen is testosterone. Physiological Roles: Produced mainly by Leydig cells in the testes and, to a lesser extent, by the adrenal cortex. Regulate development of male secondary sexual characteristics, spermatogenesis, and libido. Exhibit anabolic effects: Promote protein … Read more

Corticosteroids: Used to treat inflammation, allergies, and adrenal insufficiency. Corticosteroids are divided into two main categories based on their primary activity: Glucocorticoids Major Hormone: Cortisol (hydrocortisone). Effects: Metabolic: ↑ Gluconeogenesis, ↑ blood glucose, protein catabolism, lipolysis. Anti-inflammatory/Immunosuppressive: Inhibit phospholipase A2, ↓ cytokine and antibody production. Pharmacologic Agents: Short-acting: Intermediate-acting: Prednisone, Prednisolone, Methylprednisolone. Long-acting: Dexamethasone, Betamethasone. … Read more

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Used diagnostically in adrenal insufficiency and therapeutically in some inflammatory diseases. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Stimulates adrenal cortex to produce cortisol and other glucocorticoids. Physiology: Produced by the anterior pituitary, ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids (cortisol) and, to a lesser extent, mineralocorticoids. ACTH Analogues: Synthetic ACTH (e.g., Cosyntropin): Uses: Diagnostic … Read more

Glucagon: A peptide hormone that raises blood glucose by stimulating glycogen breakdown in the liver. Glucagon: Used in emergency treatment of severe hypoglycemia and as a diagnostic aid. Physiology: Secreted by α-cells of the pancreas in response to low blood glucose. Increases blood glucose by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver. Glucagons (e.g., glucagon … Read more

Oral Hypoglycemic (Antidiabetic) Agents: Include sulfonylureas, biguanides, gliptins, gliflozins, and others. Oral Hypoglycemic (Antidiabetic) Agents: Lower blood glucose in type 2 diabetes by enhancing insulin action or secretion. These agents are primarily used in type 2 diabetes to enhance insulin secretion, improve insulin sensitivity, or reduce glucose production. Sulfonylureas (e.g., glipizide, glyburide): Mechanism: Stimulate pancreatic … Read more

Hormones Regulating Plasma Calcium Levels – PTH, Calcitonin, Vitamin D maintain calcium homeostasis. Hormones Regulating Plasma Calcium Levels regulate calcium absorption, reabsorption, and bone resorption. Calcium homeostasis is maintained by the interplay of PTH, calcitonin, and vitamin D, each of which can be targeted pharmacologically. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)/ Parathormone Physiology: Secreted by parathyroid chief cells … Read more