Hypertension commonly known as high blood pressure, is a chronic medical condition where the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. It increases the risk of heart disease, stroke, and other serious health issues. Blood Pressure Classification Category Systolic (mmHg) Diastolic (mmHg) Normal < 120 < 80 Pre-Hypertension 120 – 139 80 – 89 … Read more
Mannitol is an osmotic diuretic used to reduce intracranial and intraocular pressure by drawing fluid out through the kidneys. Structure of Mannitol Mannitol is a sugar alcohol with six hydroxyl groups, making it highly hydrophilic and osmotic. Chemical Formula: C₆H₁₄O₆ Mode of Action Osmotic Gradient Creation: Mannitol remains in the extracellular space, creating an osmotic … Read more
Timolol is a non-selective beta-blocker used to treat hypertension, angina, and glaucoma by reducing heart rate and intraocular pressure. Structure of Timolol Timolol is a non-selective beta-adrenergic receptor blocker featuring a diphenylmethanol structure with a secondary amine. Chemical Formula: C₁₅H₂₂N₂O₃ Mode of Action Beta-Blockade: Inhibits both β₁ and β₂ adrenergic receptors. Cardiac Effects: Reduces heart … Read more
Classification of Histamine: Based on receptor types—H1, H2, H3, and H4 Classification of Histamine: Involved in allergy, gastric acid, CNS, and immunity. Histamine is a biogenic amine derived from the decarboxylation of the amino acid histidine. It plays pivotal roles in immune responses, gastric acid secretion, and as a neurotransmitter. Synthesis: From the amino acid … Read more
Introduction to Autacoids: Local hormones like histamine, serotonin, prostaglandins. Introduction to Autacoids: Used in allergy, inflammation, and cardiovascular disorders. What Are Autacoids? Autacoids are biologically active substances produced within the body that act locally to regulate various physiological functions. Unlike hormones, which are secreted into the bloodstream and act on distant targets, autacoids exert their … Read more
Triamterene is a potassium-sparing diuretic used to treat edema and hypertension by reducing sodium reabsorption without potassium loss. Structure of Triamterene Triamterene is a non-steroidal potassium-sparing diuretic with a triazine ring structure attached to an aromatic moiety and amine groups. Chemical Formula: C₁₆H₁₅N₃O₃ Mode of Action ENaC Inhibition: Blocks epithelial sodium channels (ENaC) in the … Read more
Definition of Anti-Diuretics: Anti-diuretics are agents that reduce urine production and increase water reabsorption in the kidneys. They are used to manage conditions like diabetes insipidus, nocturia, and certain cases of edema. Classes of Anti-Diuretics: 1. Desmopressin (DDAVP): Mechanism: Synthetic analog of vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH). Binds to V2 receptors in the renal collecting ducts, … Read more
Definition of Diuretics: Diuretics are medications that promote the excretion of water and electrolytes by the kidneys, increasing urine output. They are used in conditions like hypertension, heart failure, edema, and certain renal disorders. Classes of Diuretics: 1. Thiazide Diuretics: Examples: Hydrochlorothiazide, Chlorthalidone, Indapamide. Mechanism: Inhibit the sodium-chloride symporter in the distal convoluted tubule, reducing … Read more
Urinary System Definition of Urinary System The urinary system (renal system) removes waste, maintains electrolyte balance, regulates blood pressure, and produces hormones. Anatomy Kidneys (2): Filter blood, regulate fluid, electrolytes, acid-base balance, and produce hormones (erythropoietin, renin). Ureters (2): Transport urine to the bladder via peristalsis. Bladder: Stores urine (300–500 mL capacity). Urethra: Excretes urine. … Read more
Spironolactone is a potassium-sparing diuretic used in hypertension, heart failure, and edema by blocking aldosterone effects. Structure of Spironolactone Spironolactone is a steroidal potassium-sparing diuretic with a fused cyclohexene and lactone ring structure, containing a sulfonamide group. Chemical Formula: C₂₈H₃₉ClN₂O₄S Mode of Action Aldosterone Antagonism: Blocks aldosterone receptors in the distal nephron, inhibiting sodium reabsorption … Read more
