Acid and Base theory contains 3 main concepts that is Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry & Lewis concept, these are listed below Arrhenius Concept: Acids: Substances that dissociate in water to produce hydrogen ions (H⁺). Bases: Substances that dissociate in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH⁻). Example: Acid: HCl(aq) → H⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq) Base: NaOH(aq) → Na⁺(aq) + … Read more
Acids, bases and buffers are essential concepts in chemistry and play critical roles in various biological and industrial processes. Acids: Acids are substances that donate hydrogen ions (H⁺) or protons when dissolved in water. They typically have a sour taste and can be corrosive to metals. Acids can be classified into two main categories: Strong … Read more
The modified limit test for sulfate is based on gravimetric analysis, where sulfate ions (SO₄²⁻) are precipitated as barium sulfate (BaSO₄) using barium chloride (BaCl₂). The precipitate is then collected, dried, and weighed to determine the sulfate concentration. Chemical Reaction: Ba2+(aq) + SO₄2−(aq) → BaSO₄(s) Procedure for Limit Test for Sulfate: Prepare Test Solution: Prepare … Read more
The modified limit test for chloride is based on the Volhard titration method, where chloride ions (Cl⁻) are precipitated with silver nitrate (AgNO₃) and the excess silver nitrate is titrated with ammonium thiocyanate (NH₄SCN). The process involves two key reactions: Chemical Reactions of Limit Test for Chloride: Precipitation of Chloride Ions: Ag + (aq) + … Read more
The limit test for heavy metals is a qualitative test that determines if the concentration of heavy metal ions (e.g., Pb²⁺, Cu²⁺, Cd²⁺) in a sample is below a predefined acceptable limit. The test is based on the reaction between heavy metal ions and sulfide ions (S²⁻) from sodium sulfide (Na₂S), forming colored metal sulfide … Read more
The limit test for lead is a qualitative test that determines whether the concentration of lead ions (Pb²⁺) in a sample is below a predefined limit. It is based on the colorimetric reaction between lead ions (Pb²⁺) and potassium chromate (K₂CrO₄), which forms a yellow-colored precipitate of lead chromate (PbCrO₄). Chemical Reaction: Pb2 + (aq) … Read more
The limit test for arsenic is a qualitative test used to determine if the concentration of arsenic in a sample is below a predefined limit. The test is based on the reduction of arsenic (As) to arsine gas (AsH₃), which reacts with silver nitrate to form a yellow to brown stain on filter paper. Chemical … Read more
The limit test for iron is a qualitative test that checks whether the iron ion (Fe³⁺) concentration in a sample is below a specified limit. It is based on a colorimetric reaction between iron ions (Fe³⁺) and potassium thiocyanate (KSCN), forming a red-colored complex. Chemical Reaction: Fe3+(aq) + 6SCN−(aq) → [Fe(SCN)6]3−(aq) Procedure of Limit test … Read more
The limit test for sulfate is a qualitative test that detects whether the sulfate ion (SO₄²⁻) concentration in a sample is below a predefined acceptable limit. It is based on the precipitation reaction between barium ions (Ba²⁺) and sulfate ions (SO₄²⁻), forming an insoluble white precipitate of barium sulfate (BaSO₄). Chemical Reaction: Ba2+(aq) + SO₄2−(aq) … Read more
The limit test for chloride is a qualitative test that detects whether the concentration of chloride ions (Cl⁻) in a sample is below a predefined acceptable limit. It is based on the principle of a precipitation reaction between silver ions (Ag⁺) and chloride ions (Cl⁻), resulting in the formation of an insoluble white precipitate of … Read more
