Effect of Substituents on the Acidity of Phenol- The acidity of phenol is influenced by substituents on the aromatic ring, which either increase or decrease acidity based on their electronic effects. Electron-Withdrawing Groups (EWGs)- One effect of substituents on the acidity of phenol: Examples: Nitro (-NO₂), cyano (-CN), carboxyl (-COOH), halogens (-Cl, -Br). Effect: Increase … Read more
The acidity of phenols is due to the hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the aromatic ring. The acidity arises from the ability of the hydroxyl hydrogen to dissociate as a proton (H⁺), forming a phenoxide ion (C₆H₅O⁻). This acidity is primarily due to the resonance stabilization of the phenoxide ion, where the negative charge on … Read more
Phenols are a class of organic compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon ring, usually a benzene ring. They are derived from and named after phenol, the simplest member of the class. Phenols are known for their antioxidant, antiseptic, and preservative properties and are widely used in various industries, … Read more
Material Characteristics: Hardness: Harder materials require more energy for size reduction. Toughness: Tough materials may deform rather than break. Moisture Content: High moisture content can cause materials to adhere and clog equipment. Friability: Easily crumbled materials require less energy. Type of Equipment: The design and operational parameters of size reduction equipment impact efficiency and effectiveness. … Read more
Bernoulli’s Theorem states that for an incompressible, frictionless fluid, the total mechanical energy along a streamline is constant. Mathematically, $P + \frac{1}{2} \rho v^2 + \rho g h = \text{constant} $ here: P = static pressure ρ = fluid density v = fluid velocity g = acceleration due to gravity h = height above a … Read more
Principle of Ball Mill: Operates on the principle of impact and attrition. Rotating balls in a cylindrical shell cause size reduction by repeated impacts as they tumble. Construction of Ball Mill: Cylindrical Shell: Rotating drum filled with grinding media (balls). Grinding Media: Balls made of steel, ceramic, or other materials. Feed Mechanism: Hopper for material … Read more
Size Reduction Size reduction is a process used in various industries to decrease the size of solid materials. It plays a crucial role in numerous applications, including mineral processing, pharmaceuticals, food production, and chemical manufacturing. Objectives of Size Reduction Increase Surface Area: Enhancing the rate of chemical reactions. Improving solubility and mixing efficiency. Improve Handling … Read more
Several empirical laws Governing Size Reduction describe the energy required for size reduction. Rittinger’s Law: Suggests that the energy required for size reduction is directly proportional to the new surface area generated. $E = K_R \left( \frac{1}{D_1} – \frac{1}{D_2} \right) $ Where; E = energy required Kr = Rittinger’s constant D1 = initial particle size … Read more
Principle of Fluid Energy Mill: Operates on the principle of particle size reduction by collision. High-velocity air or gas jets are used to create turbulent conditions, leading to size reduction through particle collision. Construction of Fluid Energy Mill: Grinding Chamber: Circular or oval chamber with no moving parts. Nozzles: High-pressure air or gas jets. Feed … Read more
Principle of Rotameter: Based on the variable area principle. A float rises in a tapered tube until the area between the float and the tube balances the gravitational force on the float. The flow rate is directly read from a scale on the tube. Construction of Rotameter: Tapered Tube: Vertically mounted, widens from bottom to … Read more
