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Comparative Account of General Properties of Colloids

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Comparative Account of General Properties of Colloids

Comparative Account of General Properties of Colloids explains optical, electrical, and mechanical behaviors. Comparative Account of General Properties of Colloids highlights differences between lyophilic and lyophobic sols. Property Lyophilic Colloids Lyophobic Colloids Association Colloids (Micelles) Affinity for Medium Strong Very weak or none Amphiphilic (both water-loving and -hating parts) Ease of Formation Easily formed by … Read more

Classification of Colloids

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Classification of Colloids

Classification of Colloids is based on phase systems like sols, gels, emulsions, and foams. Classification of Colloids depends on physical state, interaction, and nature of dispersed phase. Colloids can be classified in several ways: Based on the Physical State of Dispersed and Dispersion Phase: Dispersed Phase Dispersion Medium Name Example Solid Solid Solid sol Colored … Read more

Classification of Dispersed Systems & Their General Characteristics

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Classification of Dispersed Systems & Their General Characteristics

Definition: Dispersed systems consist of two phases: Dispersed phase (internal phase): The substance that is dispersed. Dispersion medium (continuous phase): The substance in which the dispersed phase is distributed. Classification of Dispersed Systems: Dispersed systems are classified based on: Particle size of the dispersed phase Physical state of both the dispersed phase and dispersion medium … Read more

Isoquinoline

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Isoquinoline is a benzopyridine heterocyclic compound significant in alkaloids, pharmaceuticals, and synthetic organic chemistry. Chemical Formula of Isoquinoline: C₉H₇N Physical Properties of Isoquinoline: Property Value Appearance Yellowish liquid Boiling Point ~243 °C Melting Point ~25 °C Solubility Slightly soluble in water Basicity pKa ~5.4 (slightly more basic than quinoline) Medicinal Uses: Found in benzylisoquinoline alkaloids … Read more

Reactions of Quinoline

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Reactions of Quinoline

Reactions of Quinoline involve electrophilic substitution, nucleophilic substitution, oxidation, and reduction crucial in drug development. Reactions of Quinoline Electrophilic Substitution (EAS) Preferred Sites: C-5 and C-8 on the benzene ring (electron-rich) C-3 and C-4 are deactivated Typical Reactions: Nitration (mild): C-5 or C-8 Sulfonation: C-5 or C-8 Halogenation: Br₂ or Cl₂ at benzene ring positions … Read more

Synthesis of Quinoline

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Synthesis of Quinoline

Synthesis of Quinoline covers Skraup, Doebner–Miller, Friedländer, and Combes routes with key reagents, mechanisms, and uses. Skraup Synthesis (classical method) Reactants: Aniline + glycerol + oxidizing acid (e.g., H₂SO₄ + nitrobenzene) Mechanism: Glycerol is dehydrated to acrolein, which condenses with aniline, followed by cyclization and oxidation. Reaction: Aniline  + Glycerol  +  H₂SO₄  +  Nitrobenzene  → … Read more

Quinoline

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Quinoline

Quinoline is a nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound widely used in antimalarial drugs, dyes, and medicinal chemistry research. Chemical Formula of Quinoline: C₉H₇N Physical Properties of Quinoline: Property Value Appearance Colorless to yellow liquid Boiling Point ~238 °C Melting Point ~-15 °C Solubility Slightly soluble in water Basicity Lower than pyridine (pKa ~4.9) Medicinal Uses: Core structure … Read more

Reactions of Pyridine

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Reactions of Pyridine

Reactions of Pyridine include electrophilic substitution, nucleophilic substitution, oxidation, and reduction important in drug synthesis. Reactions of Pyridine Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution (EAS) Due to nitrogen’s electron-withdrawing nature, pyridine is much less reactive than benzene toward EAS. Preferred Positions: C-3 (meta) is the most reactive site for EAS (less destabilized intermediate). Deactivation: Protonation or complexation with … Read more

Synthesis of Pyridine

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Synthesis of Pyridine

Synthesis of Pyridine covers Hantzsch, Kröhnke, and Bohlmann–Rahtz routes with reagents, mechanisms, and medicinal chemistry applications. Hantzsch Pyridine Synthesis (most common lab method) Reactants: Aldehyde + β-keto ester + ammonia Conditions: Reflux in ethanol Example: 2 CH₃COCH₂COOEt  +  CH₃CHO  +  NH₃  →  Dihydropyridine  →  Pyridine (oxidation) The dihydropyridine intermediate is oxidized (e.g., with nitric acid … Read more

Phenylbutazone

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Phenylbutazone blocks COX enzymes, reducing prostaglandin synthesis to relieve pain and swelling. It is an NSAID used for arthritis, gout, and pain relief in inflammatory conditions. Chemical Formula: C₁₉H₂₀N₂O₂ Mechanism of Phenylbutazone: Potent non-selective COX inhibitor Strong anti-inflammatory effect Uses of Phenylbutazone: Ankylosing spondylitis (rare) Gout (historical) Side Effects: Aplastic anemia Agranulocytosis GI toxicity Notes: … Read more

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