D-L System of Nomenclature (Fischer Nomenclature) classifies chiral molecules based on the spatial arrangement of groups around the asymmetric carbon. What is it? The D-L system is a historical method used to designate the configuration of chiral molecules, particularly sugars and amino acids. It is based on the molecule’s similarity to glyceraldehyde, the simplest chiral … Read more
Presentation of Molecules refers to different ways of representing molecular structures, such as Fischer, Newman, Sawhorse, and wedge-dash projections. Presentation of Molecules Wedge-Dash (3D) Projection Purpose: Shows the actual 3D spatial orientation of atoms or groups. Features: Solid wedge (▲): Bond coming out of the plane (towards you) Dashed wedge (▿ or dashed line): Bond … Read more
Chiral and Achiral Molecules: Chiral molecules have a non-superimposable mirror image due to a chiral center, while achiral molecules are superimposable on their mirror image and lack chirality. Chiral Molecules Definition: A molecule is chiral if it: Has no element of symmetry Is not superimposable on its mirror image Can rotate plane-polarized light (optically active) … Read more
Morphine Sulphate acts on μ-opioid receptors, altering pain perception and producing sedation. It is a potent opioid analgesic for severe acute and chronic pain relief. Chemical Formula: (C₁₇H₁₉NO₃)₂·H₂SO₄ Mechanism of Action: Full agonist at μ-opioid receptors Causes inhibition of adenylate cyclase, ↓ cAMP, ↑ K⁺ efflux, ↓ Ca²⁺ influx → neuronal hyperpolarization → inhibition of … Read more
SAR of Morphine Analogues highlights opioid receptor binding, guiding design of safer pain relievers. SAR of Morphine Analogues shows how structural changes modify analgesic potency and side effects. Morphine has a rigid, pentacyclic ring system with functional groups critical to opioid activity. Key Features of SAR of Morphine Analogues: Phenolic OH at C-3: Essential for … Read more
Narcotic and Non-Narcotic Analgesics relieve pain, ranging from mild headaches to severe postoperative pain. It acts via opioid receptors or peripheral pathways to reduce pain perception. Narcotic (Opioid) Analgesics These drugs act on the opioid receptors (μ, κ, δ) in the central nervous system (CNS). Mechanism: Agonist activity at μ-opioid receptors leads to: Inhibition of … Read more
Ketamine Hydrochloride blocks NMDA receptors, producing dissociative anesthesia with analgesia. It is used for anesthesia, pain relief, and emergency sedation. Chemical Formula: C₁₃H₁₆ClNO·HCl Mechanism of Action: NMDA receptor antagonist Also interacts with opioid, monoaminergic, and muscarinic receptors Increases sympathetic output → ↑ BP, HR, CO Uses of Ketamine Hydrochloride: Induction of anesthesia Short surgical procedures … Read more
Thiopental Sodium is a barbiturate that enhances GABA action, causing rapid CNS depression. It is used for induction of anesthesia and short-term surgical procedures. Chemical Formula: C₁₁H₁₇N₂NaO₂S Mechanism of Action: Enhances GABA-A receptor function Depresses reticular activating system Uses of Thiopental Sodium: Induction of anesthesia Control of seizures Medically induced coma (neuroprotection) Side Effects of … Read more
Thiamylal Sodium enhances GABA action in the CNS, producing rapid sedative and hypnotic effects. It is a barbiturate used for induction of anesthesia and short surgical procedures. Chemical Formula: C₁₁H₁₇N₂NaO₂S Mechanism of Thiamylal Sodium: Potentiates GABA-A receptor Highly lipophilic → rapid onset of CNS depression Uses of Thiamylal Sodium: Anesthesia induction Brief surgical anesthesia Side … Read more
Desflurane enhances GABA effects in the CNS, offering fast onset, easy control, and quick recovery. It is an inhalation anesthetic used for rapid induction and maintenance of general anesthesia. Chemical Formula: C₃H₂F₆O Mechanism of Desflurane: Similar to isoflurane Rapid onset/recovery due to low blood solubility Uses of Desflurane: Outpatient surgery (day-case anesthesia) Maintenance (not ideal … Read more
