Sterilization is a crucial process in microbiology, medicine, and various industries to ensure the elimination of all forms of microbial life, including spores. Physical methods of sterilization, particularly dry heat and moist heat, are widely used. Dry Heat Sterilization Principle: Dry heat sterilization utilizes hot air devoid of moisture, making it less efficient at heat … Read more
Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disorder that primarily affects joints. It occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body’s tissues, causing inflammation in the joint lining. Overview of Rheumatoid Arthritis: It is a chronic autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the joints, causing inflammation, pain, and potential joint destruction. It can also have systemic effects, … Read more
Alcoholic liver disease results from excessive alcohol consumption, leading to liver damage. It progresses through three stages: fatty liver (steatosis), alcoholic hepatitis, and cirrhosis. Symptoms can include jaundice, abdominal pain, and liver dysfunction. Continued alcohol abuse can lead to liver failure and other serious health complications. Overview Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a spectrum of … Read more
Hepatitis refers to inflammation of the liver and can be caused by viruses, alcohol, or autoimmune diseases. Symptoms Common symptoms of hepatitis include: Fatigue Loss of Appetite Nausea and Vomiting Abdominal Pain Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes) Dark Urine Pale Stools Joint Pain Types of Hepatitis There are six main types of viral, … Read more
Jaundice is a condition characterized by the yellowing of the skin and eyes due to high levels of bilirubin in the blood. It can be caused by a variety of conditions affecting the liver, such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, or bile duct obstruction. It indicates an underlying problem with the liver or bile ducts. Symptoms Common … Read more
Inflammatory bowel diseases are chronic inflammatory conditions of the gastrointestinal tract. The two main types are Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, weight loss, and fatigue. The exact cause is unknown, but it involves a combination of genetic, environmental, and immune system factors. Symptoms of Inflammatory bowel diseases: Common symptoms of … Read more
Biochemical tests: IMViC Series are crucial in identifying bacteria by assessing their metabolic and enzymatic activities. The IMViC series—comprising the Indole, Methyl Red, Voges-Proskauer, and Citrate Utilization tests—is particularly valuable for differentiating members of the Enterobacteriaceae family. Each test examines specific metabolic pathways or enzyme activities, contributing to a comprehensive biochemical profile for bacterial identification. … Read more
Principle of Acid-Fast Staining: Acid-fast staining identifies bacteria with waxy cell walls containing mycolic acids, which do not readily take up stains but retain certain dyes even after being washed with acid-alcohol. This is particularly useful for identifying Mycobacterium species. Procedure of Acid-Fast Staining: Preparation of Smear and Fixation: As in simple staining. Primary Stain: … Read more
Principle of Gram Staining: Gram staining differentiates bacteria based on the structure of their cell walls. Gram-positive bacteria retain the primary stain, while Gram-negative bacteria do not, due to differences in their cell wall composition. Procedure of Gram Staining: Preparation of Smear and Fixation: As in simple staining. Primary Stain: Crystal violet is applied to … Read more
Principle of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) SEM scans a focused electron beam across the specimen’s surface. Secondary electrons emitted from the specimen surface are collected to form an image. SEM provides high-resolution, three-dimensional images that reveal the specimen’s surface topology. Procedure for Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Specimen Preparation: Fixation: The specimen is fixed to preserve … Read more
