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What is Interferon? Interferons (IFNs) are a group of antiviral and immune-modulating proteins produced naturally by cells in response to viral infections. They are used to treat viral infections, cancer, and immune disorders. Types of Interferons Interferon-α (IFN-α) → Used for treating hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and leukemia. Interferon-β (IFN-β) → Used for treating multiple … Read more

1. Production of Recombinant Proteins Insulin → Used to treat diabetes (produced using E. coli). Human Growth Hormone (hGH) → Treats growth disorders. Erythropoietin (EPO) → Stimulates red blood cell production, used in anemia treatment. 2. Gene Therapy Used to treat genetic disorders by introducing functional genes. Example: SCID (Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease) is treated … Read more

Recombinant DNA technology, also known as genetic engineering or gene cloning, is a set of techniques used to manipulate and modify DNA from different sources to create new DNA molecules. These recombinant DNA molecules are widely used in gene therapy, biotechnology, and pharmaceuticals. Steps in Recombinant DNA Technology Isolation of DNA DNA is extracted from … Read more

DNA ligase is an enzyme essential for DNA replication and repair. It catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides, sealing breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA. Mechanism of Action Catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds between 3′-OH and 5′-phosphate ends of DNA strands. Requires ATP or NAD+ as an energy source. Specificity … Read more

Definition of Restriction Endonucleases  Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences, acting as molecular scissors. These enzymes are naturally found in bacteria, where they protect against foreign DNA (e.g., viral DNA) by cutting it. Types of Restriction Enzymes Type I Cut DNA at random locations, often hundreds of base pairs away from … Read more

What is Genetic Engineering? Genetic engineering involves modifying an organism’s genetic material using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology to introduce desirable traits or produce valuable biological products. Key Steps in Genetic Engineering Isolation of Genetic Material DNA is extracted from the source (donor) cell. Restriction Endonucleases (Restriction Enzymes) Enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences. Generate … Read more

General Considerations in Industrial Enzyme Production Selection of Microorganisms Enzyme-producing bacteria (Bacillus), fungi (Aspergillus spp.), and yeast (Saccharomyces spp.). Fermentation Process Submerged Fermentation (SmF): Microorganisms are grown in liquid media (e.g., for amylase production). Solid-State Fermentation (SSF): Uses solid substrates like bran or wheat for enzyme production (e.g., fungal proteases). Optimization of Growth Conditions pH, … Read more

Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, yeast) are integral to industrial biotechnology because of their rapid growth, genetic tractability, and ability to produce a wide range of valuable biomolecules. Microbial Applications in the Pharmaceutical Industry Antibiotic Production Penicillium chrysogenum: Produces penicillin. Streptomyces spp.: Produces streptomycin, tetracycline, and erythromycin. Vaccine Production Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Used for recombinant … Read more

What is Protein Engineering? Protein engineering is the process of designing and modifying proteins to improve their stability, activity, specificity, or functionality for industrial, pharmaceutical, and therapeutic applications. It combines principles of molecular biology, genetics, and computational modeling to create proteins with enhanced properties. Approaches to Protein Engineering There are two main approaches: Rational Design … Read more

What Are Biosensors? A biosensor is an analytical device that converts a biological response into a measurable signal. It consists of: Bioreceptor A biological element (enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid, aptamer, or cells) that specifically interacts with the target analyte (e.g., glucose). Transducer Converts the biorecognition event into a detectable signal (electrical, optical, thermal, or mass … Read more