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Reactions of Benzene: Benzene (C₆H₆) is a highly stable aromatic hydrocarbon due to its conjugated π-electron system. This stability makes benzene a prime candidate for electrophilic substitution reactions, where an electrophile replaces one of the hydrogen atoms on the benzene ring. Here are the key electrophilic substitution reactions of benzene: nitration, sulphonation, halogenation, Friedel-Crafts alkylation, … Read more
Hückel’s rule is a criterion used to determine if a molecule is aromatic. Aromatic compounds exhibit unusual stability and unique properties due to the delocalization of π electrons in a conjugated ring system. Here are the key points: Cyclic Structure: The molecule must have a ring structure. Planarity: The molecule must be planar, which allows … Read more
Explore the Aromatic Character in Benzene — aromatic compounds are a special class of cyclic compounds with exceptional stability due to the delocalized π electron cloud. Benzene is the prototypical aromatic compound, and its aromatic character can be understood through several criteria: Planarity: Benzene is a planar molecule, allowing optimal overlap of p orbitals. Cyclic … Read more
The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes from food, forming solid waste (feces) which is then excreted from the body. Anatomy The large intestine, or colon, is about 5 feet in length and is divided into several parts: the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus. 1. Cecum: A pouch-like … Read more
Benzene exhibits resonance, a phenomenon where the actual electronic structure is a hybrid of two or more contributing structures. There are two main resonance structures: In one structure, double bonds are between C1-C2, C3-C4, and C5-C6. In the other structure, double bonds are between C2-C3, C4-C5, and C6-C1. These resonance structures imply that the π … Read more
Orbital Picture of Benzene (C₆H₆): It is a planar, cyclic molecule with six carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal ring. Each carbon atom in benzene is sp² hybridized, meaning each carbon atom forms three sigma (σ) bonds: two with adjacent carbon atoms and one with a hydrogen atom. This leaves one unhybridized p orbital on … Read more
The structure of benzene has been the subject of extensive research and analysis, with significant evidence contributing to the derivation of its structure, since its discovery in 1825 by Michael Faraday. Various analytical, synthetic, and other experimental evidence have contributed to the derivation of its structure. Analytical Evidence in the Derivation of the Structure of … Read more
Benzene (C₆H₆) and its derivatives are simple aromatic hydrocarbons, characterized by a six-carbon ring with alternating single and double bonds. The molecule is planar, with each carbon atom bonded to two other carbons and a hydrogen atom. Due to the presence of resonance structures, the electrons in the π-bonds are delocalized, which results in the … Read more
Principle of Pitot Tube: Based on Bernoulli’s theorem. Measures the difference between the stagnation pressure and static pressure to determine fluid velocity. Formula: $v = \sqrt{\frac{2\Delta P}{\rho}} $ Where: v = flow velocity ΔP = difference between stagnation pressure and static pressure ρ = fluid density Construction of Pitot Tube: Pitot Tube: L-shaped tube with … Read more
Principle of Venturimeter: Based on Bernoulli’s theorem. The fluid’s velocity increases, and pressure decreases as it passes through the throat of the Venturimeter. Formula: $Q = C_d A_1 \sqrt{\frac{2\Delta P}{\rho \left(1 – \left(\frac{A_2}{A_1}\right)^2 \right)}}$ Where: Q = flow rate Cd = discharge coefficient A1 = cross-sectional area of the pipe before the converging section A2 … Read more
