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Reactions of Oxazole include electrophilic substitution at the 5-position, nucleophilic substitution at the 2-position, and ring-opening reactions. Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution (EAS) The ring is electron-deficient (due to N and O), so EAS is more difficult than in pyrrole, furan, or imidazole. Most reactive site: C-5, due to resonance stabilization of the intermediate. Examples: Nitration (HNO₃/H₂SO₄) … Read more
Pyridine is a nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound essential in pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and organic synthesis. Chemical Formula of Pyridine: C₅H₅N Physical Properties of Pyridine: Property Value Appearance Colorless liquid Odor Fish-like, unpleasant Boiling Point ~115 °C Melting Point ~-41 °C Solubility Miscible with water and organics Basicity (pKa of conjugate acid) ~5.2 (moderately basic) Medicinal Uses: Pyridine … Read more
Reactions of Thiazole include electrophilic substitution, metalation, oxidation, and reduction pathways significant in medicinal chemistry. Reactions of Thiazole Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution (EAS) Like oxazole, C-5 is the most reactive site. Easier than oxazole due to lower electronegativity of sulfur. Examples: Bromination: Thiazole + Br₂ → 5-bromothiazole Nitration: HNO₃/H₂SO₄ → 5-nitrothiazole Friedel–Crafts acylation: Rare, can occur … Read more
Synthesis of Thiazole explains key routes like Hantzsch, Gabriel, and cyclization strategies with reagents, mechanisms, and applications. Hantzsch Thiazole Synthesis (Classical and widely used) Reactants: α-haloketone + thioamide Conditions: Reflux in ethanol or basic medium Reaction: CH₃COCH₂Cl + NH₂–CS–NH₂ → Thiazole derivative Mechanism: Nucleophilic attack by thioamide Cyclization Elimination of HCl Gabriel Synthesis Uses α-haloketone … Read more
Thiazole is a sulfur and nitrogen heterocyclic ring important in drug design, vitamins, and medicinal chemistry. Chemical Formula of Thiazole: C₃H₃NS Physical Properties of Thiazole: Property Value Appearance Colorless to pale yellow liquid Boiling Point ~116 °C Melting Point ~-30 °C Solubility Soluble in organic solvents Basicity Weakly basic Medicinal Uses: Found in many biologically … Read more
Acetaminophen (Paracetamol) relieves pain and fever, widely used as an OTC analgesic-antipyretic. It inhibits central prostaglandin synthesis with minimal anti-inflammatory effect. Chemical Formula: C₈H₉NO₂ Mechanism of Acetaminophen (Paracetamol): Weak COX inhibition in CNS No peripheral anti-inflammatory effect Acts on serotonergic & endocannabinoid systems (minor) Uses of Acetaminophen (Paracetamol): Fever Mild to moderate pain Preferred in … Read more
Naproxen blocks COX enzymes, reducing prostaglandins to relieve pain, fever, and swelling. It is an NSAID used for arthritis, muscle pain, menstrual cramps, and inflammation. Chemical Formula: C₁₄H₁₄O₃ Mechanism of Naproxen: Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibitor Uses of Naproxen: Arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis Dysmenorrhea Fever, inflammation Side Effects: GI discomfort Cardiovascular risk (less than some NSAIDs) Fluid … Read more
Ibuprofen blocks COX enzymes, decreasing prostaglandin synthesis to ease pain and swelling. It is an NSAID used for pain, fever, arthritis, and inflammation relief. Chemical Formula: C₁₃H₁₈O₂ Mechanism of Action: Reversible COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitor Reduces prostaglandin synthesis → ↓ pain, fever, inflammation Uses: Mild to moderate pain Fever Dysmenorrhea Osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis Side Effects … Read more
Ketorolac blocks COX enzymes, reducing prostaglandins to provide strong analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. It is a potent NSAID for short-term management of moderate to severe pain. Chemical Formula: C₁₅H₁₃NO₃ Mechanism of Action: Potent non-selective COX inhibitor Primarily analgesic, weak anti-inflammatory Uses of Ketorolac: Moderate to severe acute pain (short-term, post-op) Alternative to opioids Side Effects … Read more
Diclofenac inhibits COX enzymes, reducing prostaglandin synthesis for strong anti-inflammatory action. It is widely used to treat pain, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammation. Chemical Formula: C₁₄H₁₁Cl₂NO₂ Mechanism of Action: Potent COX-2 > COX-1 inhibitor Inhibits PG synthesis and may inhibit LOX and lipoxygenase enzymes (minor) Uses of Diclofenac: OA, RA, ankylosing spondylitis Post-op pain, dysmenorrhea … Read more
