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Intravenous (IV) Anesthetics induce rapid unconsciousness and are commonly used for surgical anesthesia induction. Intravenous (IV) Anesthetics Rapid onset (within seconds) Commonly used for induction of anesthesia Often followed by maintenance with inhalational agents Suitable for short procedures Important IV Agents Drug Mechanism Use Adverse Effects Propofol GABA-A agonist Induction, short procedures Hypotension, pain on … Read more

Seizures and Their Types refer to abnormal electrical activity in the brain, categorized into generalized, focal, and unknown onset seizures. What is a Seizure? A seizure is a sudden, uncontrolled electrical disturbance in the brain that can cause changes in behavior, movements, feelings, or consciousness. Classification of Seizures Seizures are broadly classified into: Focal (Partial) … Read more

Anti-Epileptic Drugs (AEDs) are medications used to control and prevent seizures by stabilizing electrical activity in the brain. Definition of Anti-Epileptic Drugs (AEDS): AEDs are used to suppress abnormal electrical activity in the brain associated with epileptic seizures. Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures. Classification of Anti-Epileptic Drugs Based on … Read more

Definition of Centrally Acting Muscle Relaxants: Centrally acting muscle relaxants are a class of drugs that reduce muscle tone and help relieve muscle spasms through actions on the central nervous system (CNS) rather than directly on skeletal muscles. Mechanism of Action: These drugs work primarily by: Depressing neuronal activity in the brain and/or spinal cord. … Read more

Definition of Sedatives and Hypnotics: Sedatives: Drugs that reduce anxiety and exert a calming effect without inducing sleep at low doses. Hypnotics: Drugs that induce and maintain sleep at higher doses. The same drug can act as both a sedative and a hypnotic depending on dose. Mechanism of Action Most act by potentiating GABA-A receptors … Read more

Pre-anesthetics are drugs given before anesthesia to reduce anxiety, pain, and side effects during surgery. Pre-anesthetics Pre-anesthetics are drugs administered before the induction of anesthesia to improve the quality and safety of anesthesia and surgery. They are used to: Calm the patient (anxiolysis) Reduce pain (preemptive analgesia) Decrease secretions Prevent reflex responses (bradycardia, salivation) Reduce … Read more

Pharmacokinetics Absorption: Via lungs → alveoli → blood → brain Distribution: Depends on blood-gas partition coefficient Low B/G coefficient = faster induction/recovery (e.g., Desflurane) High B/G coefficient = slower induction/recovery (e.g., Halothane) Elimination: Mostly exhaled unchanged; some undergo hepatic metabolism (e.g., Halothane) Potency – Minimum Alveolar Concentration (MAC) MAC: Concentration required to prevent movement in … Read more

Definition of General Anesthetics: These are central nervous system (CNS) depressants that induce a reversible state of unconsciousness, analgesia, amnesia, muscle relaxation, and loss of reflexes to enable surgical procedures. Stages of General Anesthesia (Guedel’s Classification for Inhaled Agents) Stage I – Analgesia Patient is conscious but drowsy Perception of pain is reduced Stage II … Read more

Below we have described about the Dopamine (DA) which is a neurotransmitter that regulates movement, reward, mood, and plays a role in neurological disorders. Function of Dopamine (DA): Controls movement, reward, emotion, and endocrine regulation. Pathways: Nigrostriatal → movement control (degenerates in Parkinson disease). Mesolimbic/mesocortical → reward, salience (hyperactive in schizophrenia). Tuberoinfundibular → tonic inhibition … Read more