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Several kidney disorders can impair kidney function and overall health. Common kidney disorders include: Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) Cause: Sudden loss of kidney function due to factors like reduced blood flow, direct kidney damage, or urine flow blockage. Key Points: Requires rapid intervention to prevent permanent damage. Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) Cause: Gradual loss of … Read more
The Renin-Angiotensin System (RAS) regulates blood pressure, fluid balance, and electrolyte homeostasis, with critical roles in kidney function and cardiovascular health. Components of the RAS: Renin: Released by the juxtaglomerular cells in response to low blood pressure, low blood volume, or low sodium. Angiotensinogen: A protein produced by the liver that is converted to angiotensin … Read more
kidneys play a crucial role in maintaining the body’s acid-base balance, a vital aspect of homeostasis, by regulating the pH of the blood. The normal pH range of blood is tightly regulated between 7.35 and 7.45, and the kidneys contribute to maintaining this balance by excreting acid or base and reabsorbing bicarbonate (HCO3-) from the … Read more
Urine formation is a complex process that involves several steps to filter blood, remove waste products, and maintain the body’s fluid and electrolyte balance. The primary site of urine formation is the nephron, which is the functional unit of the kidney. There are three main steps in urine formation: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular … Read more
Functions of the Kidney Filtration of Blood Filter waste and excess substances from blood, excreting them as urine. Regulation of Blood Volume and Pressure Adjust water excretion and release renin to regulate blood pressure. Electrolyte Balance Maintain balance of electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium. Acid-Base Balance Regulate blood pH by excreting hydrogen ions and … Read more
The Micturition Reflex controls the act of urination through a combination of voluntary and involuntary mechanisms. It involves interaction between the central nervous system and the urinary tract. Components of the Micturition Reflex: Bladder Function: The detrusor muscle in the bladder walls stores urine by relaxing and expels urine by contracting during urination. Internal Urethral … Read more
kidney anatomy is intricate, designed to efficiently filter blood, remove waste, maintain electrolyte balance, and regulate blood pressure. Each kidney is a bean-shaped organ, approximately the size of a fist, located on either side of the spine, just below the rib cage. The kidneys are part of the upper urinary tract and play a crucial … Read more
Substituents on a benzene ring significantly influence the reactivity and orientation of monosubstituted benzene compounds in electrophilic aromatic substitution (EAS) reactions. The substituents can be broadly classified as either electron-donating groups (EDGs) or electron-withdrawing groups (EWGs), and their effects on reactivity and orientation are crucial for predicting the outcome of these reactions. Types of Substituents … Read more
Definition of Saponification Value (SV): The saponification value is the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to saponify 1 gram of fat or oil. Significance of Saponification Value (SV): Indicates the average molecular weight (or chain length) of the fatty acids in the fat or oil. Higher saponification values suggest the presence of … Read more
Definition of Acetyl Value (AcV): The acetyl value is the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize the acetic acid liberated from 1 gram of acetylated fat or oil. Significance of Acetyl Value (AcV): Provides information about the hydroxyl groups present in the fat or oil, which are acetylated during the process. … Read more
