Intro, classification, chemical nature & role of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, amino acids, proteins.
Free energy, endergonic/exergonic reactions.
Free energy–enthalpy–entropy relation.
Redox potential.
Energy-rich compounds: ATP, cyclic AMP.
Glycolysis: pathway, energetics, significance.
Citric Acid Cycle: pathway, energetics, significance.
HMP shunt, G6PD deficiency.
Glycogen metabolism, GSD.
Gluconeogenesis: pathway, significance.
Hormonal regulation of blood glucose, diabetes mellitus.
Electron Transport Chain (ETC) mechanism.
Oxidative & substrate phosphorylation.
Inhibitors/uncouplers.
β-oxidation (Palmitic acid).
Ketone bodies, ketoacidosis.
Fatty acid synthesis.
Cholesterol: significance, conversion to bile acids, steroid hormones, vitamin D.
Disorders: hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, fatty liver, obesity.
Transamination, deamination, decarboxylation.
Urea cycle, disorders.
Phenylalanine/tyrosine catabolism, related disorders.
Biological amines: 5-HT, melatonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, adrenaline.
Heme catabolism, hyperbilirubinemia, jaundice.
Purine & pyrimidine biosynthesis.
Purine catabolism, hyperuricemia, gout.
Genome organization.
DNA/RNA structure & function.
DNA replication.
Transcription.
Genetic code.
Translation & inhibitors.
Intro, properties, nomenclature, IUB classification.
Enzyme kinetics: Michaelis plot, Lineweaver–Burke plot.
Enzyme inhibitors: types, examples.
Regulation: induction, repression, allosteric.
Applications: therapeutic, diagnostic, isoenzymes.
Coenzymes: structure, functions.
Gluconeogenesis is a crucial metabolic pathway that synthesizes glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, maintaining stable blood glucose levels during fasting, prolonged exercise, or low carbohydrate intake. It occurs mainly in the liver and kidneys. Gluconeogenesis Pathway Gluconeogenesis reverses most steps of glycolysis, except for three key steps where it uses unique enzymes: Pyruvate to Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP): … Read more
Glycolysis is a pivotal biochemical pathway in the metabolism of glucose, leading to the production of pyruvate, ATP (adenosine triphosphate), and NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). It occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and operates under anaerobic conditions, meaning it does not require oxygen. This process plays a critical role in generating energy and precursor molecules … Read more
Carbohydrate metabolism involves the synthesis, breakdown, and transformation of carbohydrates, primarily for energy production. Let’s delve into the key stages of carbohydrate metabolism in a detailed and organized manner: Glycolysis Location: Cytoplasm of the cells Process: The conversion of glucose (a six-carbon molecule) into two molecules of pyruvate (three carbons each). Energy Yield: 2 ATP … Read more
Translation or Protein synthesis Definition Translation, or protein synthesis, is the process by which the genetic code contained within messenger RNA (mRNA) is decoded by ribosomes to produce specific proteins. Proteins are essential for various cellular functions, including structure, function, and regulation of the body’s tissues and organs. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm of cells … Read more
Inhibitors of Translation, the process of protein synthesis from mRNA, can be inhibited by various compounds that target specific components or stages of this process. These inhibitors are crucial in research for elucidating mechanisms of translation and serve as valuable antibiotics in medicine. However, their potential toxicity to eukaryotic cells necessitates careful management of their … Read more
The genetic code is the set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material (DNA or mRNA sequences) into proteins. It is essentially the blueprint for how the sequences of nucleotides in DNA and RNA are converted into the amino acid sequences of proteins. Components of the Genetic Code Nucleotides: … Read more
RNA synthesis, also known as transcription, is the biological process by which RNA is produced from a DNA template. While the core mechanism is conserved across all domains of life, significant differences exist between eukaryotes and prokaryotes due to variations in cellular structure and regulation. Feature Eukaryotes Prokaryotes Cellular Location Nucleus (transcription), Cytoplasm (translation) Cytoplasm … Read more
Transcription or RNA Synthesis is the process by which a segment of DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase. is the first step in the expression of genes, leading to the synthesis of proteins. Here’s an overview of the transcription process: Steps of Transcription Initiation: Promoter Region: RNA Synthesis begins at a … Read more
DNA replication is essential for cell division, ensuring that each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the DNA. It is process follows the semi-conservative model, where each new DNA molecule has one original strand and one newly synthesized strand. The steps involved are: 1. Initiation of DNA Replication Origins of Replication: Replication begins at … Read more
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) is a single-stranded nucleic acid made up of ribonucleotides, which consist of a ribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), or guanine (G). Structure: 1. Single-Stranded of RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): RNA is typically single-stranded, but it can form secondary structures by folding … Read more
