Intro, classification, chemical nature & role of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, amino acids, proteins.
Free energy, endergonic/exergonic reactions.
Free energy–enthalpy–entropy relation.
Redox potential.
Energy-rich compounds: ATP, cyclic AMP.
Glycolysis: pathway, energetics, significance.
Citric Acid Cycle: pathway, energetics, significance.
HMP shunt, G6PD deficiency.
Glycogen metabolism, GSD.
Gluconeogenesis: pathway, significance.
Hormonal regulation of blood glucose, diabetes mellitus.
Electron Transport Chain (ETC) mechanism.
Oxidative & substrate phosphorylation.
Inhibitors/uncouplers.
β-oxidation (Palmitic acid).
Ketone bodies, ketoacidosis.
Fatty acid synthesis.
Cholesterol: significance, conversion to bile acids, steroid hormones, vitamin D.
Disorders: hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, fatty liver, obesity.
Transamination, deamination, decarboxylation.
Urea cycle, disorders.
Phenylalanine/tyrosine catabolism, related disorders.
Biological amines: 5-HT, melatonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, adrenaline.
Heme catabolism, hyperbilirubinemia, jaundice.
Purine & pyrimidine biosynthesis.
Purine catabolism, hyperuricemia, gout.
Genome organization.
DNA/RNA structure & function.
DNA replication.
Transcription.
Genetic code.
Translation & inhibitors.
Intro, properties, nomenclature, IUB classification.
Enzyme kinetics: Michaelis plot, Lineweaver–Burke plot.
Enzyme inhibitors: types, examples.
Regulation: induction, repression, allosteric.
Applications: therapeutic, diagnostic, isoenzymes.
Coenzymes: structure, functions.
Melatonin is a natural hormone produced by the pineal gland in the brain that helps regulate the body’s sleep-wake cycle, also known as the circadian rhythm. Synthesis of Melatonin: Step 1: Conversion to N-acetylserotonin: Enzyme: Arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT). Process: Serotonin is acetylated to form N-acetylserotonin. Mechanism: AANAT transfers an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to serotonin, … Read more
Serotonin (5-HT) is a chemical messenger (neurotransmitter) primarily found in the brain, blood platelets, and the digestive system. It plays a key role in regulating mood, emotion, sleep, appetite, digestion, and various other physiological functions. Serotonin is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan and is often associated with feelings of well-being and happiness. Synthesis of … Read more
Tyrosine Catabolism involves breaking down the amino acid tyrosine into simpler, usable compounds through a series of biochemical reactions: Tyrosine Aminotransferase (TAT): Reaction: Tyrosine is converted into p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate. Mechanism: The enzyme tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) transfers an amino group from tyrosine to alpha-ketoglutarate, resulting in p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate and glutamate. p-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate Dioxygenase (HPPD): Reaction: p-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate is converted into homogentisate. … Read more
Phenylalanine catabolism is a crucial metabolic process that breaks down the amino acid phenylalanine into simpler compounds for use by the body. This process involves a series of biochemical reactions, primarily resulting in the production of tyrosine, which is further metabolized into substances that participate in key metabolic pathways. Main Steps in Phenylalanine Catabolism: Conversion … Read more
Urea cycle disorders (UCDs) are genetic conditions resulting from deficiencies in one of the enzymes involved in the urea cycle. These Urea Cycle Disorders lead to the accumulation of ammonia and other toxic substances in the blood, causing serious health issues. Here’s a brief overview of the main disorders: Carbamoyl Phosphate Synthetase I Deficiency (CPS … Read more
The urea cycle, also known as the ornithine cycle, is a crucial metabolic pathway in the liver that detoxifies ammonia, converting it into urea, which is then excreted by the kidneys. This cycle is vital for the removal of excess nitrogen generated during amino acid metabolism. Here’s a detailed explanation: Steps of the Urea Cycle: … Read more
Decarboxylation in Amino Acid Metabolism Decarboxylation is a vital biochemical reaction involving the removal of a carboxyl group (-COOH) from a molecule, releasing carbon dioxide (CO2). In amino acid metabolism, this reaction is essential for converting amino acids into various bioactive compounds, such as amines and neurotransmitters. Enzymes called decarboxylases, which often require pyridoxal phosphate … Read more
Deamination is an essential biochemical process that facilitates the removal of an amino group (-NH2) from an amino acid. This process yields ammonia (NH3) and an α-keto acid, playing a pivotal role in the catabolism (breakdown) of amino acids. Through deamination, the body can utilize amino acids for energy, produce metabolic intermediates, and manage excess … Read more
Transamination in Amino Acid Definition Transamination in Amino Acid is a reversible biochemical reaction pivotal in amino acid metabolism. It facilitates the interconversion of amino acids and the synthesis of non-essential amino acids within the body. This process is mediated by enzymes known as transaminases or aminotransferases, which rely on a cofactor, pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)—a … Read more
Amino acid metabolism encompasses the various biochemical processes involved in the synthesis, breakdown, and interconversion of acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. It is crucial for maintaining cellular function, growth, and repair. It can be broadly classified into two categories: Anabolism: The synthesis of proteins from simpler precursors. There are 20 standards, 11 … Read more
