Intro, classification, chemical nature & role of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, amino acids, proteins.
Free energy, endergonic/exergonic reactions.
Free energy–enthalpy–entropy relation.
Redox potential.
Energy-rich compounds: ATP, cyclic AMP.
Glycolysis: pathway, energetics, significance.
Citric Acid Cycle: pathway, energetics, significance.
HMP shunt, G6PD deficiency.
Glycogen metabolism, GSD.
Gluconeogenesis: pathway, significance.
Hormonal regulation of blood glucose, diabetes mellitus.
Electron Transport Chain (ETC) mechanism.
Oxidative & substrate phosphorylation.
Inhibitors/uncouplers.
β-oxidation (Palmitic acid).
Ketone bodies, ketoacidosis.
Fatty acid synthesis.
Cholesterol: significance, conversion to bile acids, steroid hormones, vitamin D.
Disorders: hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, fatty liver, obesity.
Transamination, deamination, decarboxylation.
Urea cycle, disorders.
Phenylalanine/tyrosine catabolism, related disorders.
Biological amines: 5-HT, melatonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, adrenaline.
Heme catabolism, hyperbilirubinemia, jaundice.
Purine & pyrimidine biosynthesis.
Purine catabolism, hyperuricemia, gout.
Genome organization.
DNA/RNA structure & function.
DNA replication.
Transcription.
Genetic code.
Translation & inhibitors.
Intro, properties, nomenclature, IUB classification.
Enzyme kinetics: Michaelis plot, Lineweaver–Burke plot.
Enzyme inhibitors: types, examples.
Regulation: induction, repression, allosteric.
Applications: therapeutic, diagnostic, isoenzymes.
Coenzymes: structure, functions.
DNA, or Deoxyribonucleic Acid, is a long, double-stranded molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is composed of two strands forming a double helix, made up of repeating units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar (deoxyribose), … Read more
The mammalian genome is a highly complex and organized structure, containing all the genetic information necessary for the development, functioning, and reproduction of the organism. Mammalian genome is composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and is packaged into chromosomes within the nucleus of the cell. Key Components of the Mammalian Genome DNA Structure of Mammalian genome … Read more
Gout Disease is a type of inflammatory arthritis characterized by sudden, severe attacks of pain, redness, and tenderness in joints, caused by the deposition of monosodium urate crystals. It is directly linked to hyperuricemia. Pathophysiology of Gout: High levels of uric acid in the blood lead to the formation of urate crystals. These crystals deposit … Read more
Hyperuricemia is a condition of elevated uric acid levels in the blood, caused by excess production or reduced excretion. Uric acid, the end product of purine metabolism, is primarily excreted by the kidneys, and its buildup can lead to gout and kidney stones. Causes of Hyperuricemia Increased Uric Acid Production: High purine diet (red meat, … Read more
Catabolism of Purine Nucleotides involves the breakdown of nucleotides into their constituent components, ultimately leading to the formation of uric acid. Catabolism of Purine Nucleotides process occurs mainly in the liver and involves several key enzymes. Steps in Purine Catabolism Degradation of AMP and GMP: AMP Catabolism: AMP is deaminated to inosine monophosphate (IMP) by … Read more
Biosynthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotide is the biochemical process through which cells produce pyrimidine bases cytosine, thymine, and uracil used to form nucleotides such as UMP (uridine monophosphate), CMP (cytidine monophosphate), and TMP (thymidine monophosphate). Biosynthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotide is synthesized first and then attached to a ribose-phosphate backbone. De Novo Pathway The de novo synthesis of pyrimidines … Read more
Biosynthesis of Purine Nucleotide refers to the cellular process by which purine nucleotides primarily adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and guanosine monophosphate (GMP) are synthesized from small molecular precursors. Biosynthesis of Purine Nucleotide pathway involves the stepwise construction of the purine ring directly onto a ribose sugar molecule (from PRPP: 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate), utilizing amino acids (like glycine, glutamine, and … Read more
Catabolism of heme is the process by which the heme molecule is broken down into simpler compounds. Catabolism of heme process primarily occurs in the liver and spleen and involves several key steps: Heme Oxygenase (HO): Reaction: Heme is broken down into biliverdin, carbon monoxide (CO), and free ferrous iron (Fe²⁺). Enzyme: Heme oxygenase (HO). Cofactors: … Read more
Noradrenaline, also known as norepinephrine, is a neurotransmitter and hormone involved in the body’s “fight or flight” response. It is produced primarily in the adrenal medulla and nerve endings of the sympathetic nervous system. Synthesis: Conversion from Dopamine of Noradrenaline: Enzyme: Dopamine β-hydroxylase. Process: Dopamine is hydroxylated to (norepinephrine). Cofactor Required: Ascorbic acid (vitamin C). … Read more
Dopamine helps transmit signals between nerve cells and is involved in how we feel pleasure. It’s often called the “feel-good” chemical, especially in the context of reward-driven behavior. Synthesis of Dopamine: Step 1: Conversion to L-DOPA: Enzyme: Tyrosine hydroxylase. Process: Tyrosine is hydroxylated to form L-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA). Cofactors Required: Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) and oxygen. Mechanism: BH4 … Read more
