Intro, classification, chemical nature & role of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, amino acids, proteins.
Free energy, endergonic/exergonic reactions.
Free energy–enthalpy–entropy relation.
Redox potential.
Energy-rich compounds: ATP, cyclic AMP.
Glycolysis: pathway, energetics, significance.
Citric Acid Cycle: pathway, energetics, significance.
HMP shunt, G6PD deficiency.
Glycogen metabolism, GSD.
Gluconeogenesis: pathway, significance.
Hormonal regulation of blood glucose, diabetes mellitus.
Electron Transport Chain (ETC) mechanism.
Oxidative & substrate phosphorylation.
Inhibitors/uncouplers.
β-oxidation (Palmitic acid).
Ketone bodies, ketoacidosis.
Fatty acid synthesis.
Cholesterol: significance, conversion to bile acids, steroid hormones, vitamin D.
Disorders: hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, fatty liver, obesity.
Transamination, deamination, decarboxylation.
Urea cycle, disorders.
Phenylalanine/tyrosine catabolism, related disorders.
Biological amines: 5-HT, melatonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, adrenaline.
Heme catabolism, hyperbilirubinemia, jaundice.
Purine & pyrimidine biosynthesis.
Purine catabolism, hyperuricemia, gout.
Genome organization.
DNA/RNA structure & function.
DNA replication.
Transcription.
Genetic code.
Translation & inhibitors.
Intro, properties, nomenclature, IUB classification.
Enzyme kinetics: Michaelis plot, Lineweaver–Burke plot.
Enzyme inhibitors: types, examples.
Regulation: induction, repression, allosteric.
Applications: therapeutic, diagnostic, isoenzymes.
Coenzymes: structure, functions.
Lipid metabolism disorders can significantly impact health, leading to various conditions such as hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, fatty liver, and obesity. Here’s a brief overview of each lipid metabolism Disorders: 1. Hypercholesterolemia: Definition: An abnormally high level of cholesterol in the blood. Causes: Genetic factors, poor diet, lack of exercise, and other health conditions like diabetes. Risks: … Read more
The conversion of cholesterol into bile acids, steroid hormones, and vitamin D refers to the biochemical transformation of cholesterol into essential molecules that play critical roles in digestion, endocrine function, and calcium homeostasis. These metabolic pathways occur in different tissues and are tightly regulated to maintain physiological balance. Conversion of Cholesterol into Bile Acids: Primary … Read more
The biological significance of cholesterol in the human body is vast and multifaceted, involving its role in cell membrane structure, as a precursor for vital compounds, and more. Here’s an organized explanation of Biological significance of cholesterol: Cell Membrane Structure and Function: Cholesterol is essential in animal cell membranes, helping to maintain the right fluidity … Read more
De novo synthesis of fatty acids refers to the process by which fatty acids are synthesized from simpler precursors, such as acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA. Palmitic acid (C16:0) is the primary product of this synthesis in humans. The process of mainly occurs in the cytosol of hepatocytes (liver cells) and adipocytes (fat cells). Key Steps in the … Read more
Ketoacidosis is a serious condition characterized by the accumulation of ketone bodies in the blood, leading to a decrease in blood pH and resulting in metabolic acidosis. Definition and Pathophysiology: Ketoacidosis is a pathological condition characterized by elevated levels of ketone bodies in the blood, leading to a decrease in blood pH. It occurs when … Read more
Ketone bodies are water-soluble molecules produced by the liver as an alternative energy source when glucose is scarce, such as during fasting, prolonged exercise, or a low-carbohydrate diet. The three main ketone bodies are acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), and acetone. Formation of ketone bodies (ketogenesis): Location: Mitochondria of liver cells When glucose levels are low, fatty … Read more
β-Oxidation is the primary pathway for breaking down fatty acids to generate energy. In this process, fatty acids are converted into acetyl-CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) to produce ATP. Here’s a detailed explanation of the beta-oxidation of palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid with 16 carbons (C16:0). 1. Activation and Transport into … Read more
Lipid metabolism involves the synthesis, transport, and breakdown of lipids in the body. Lipids are diverse organic compounds, including fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol. They play critical roles in cellular structure, energy storage, and signaling. Lipid metabolism is divided into anabolic (lipid synthesis) and catabolic (lipid breakdown) pathways. Anabolic Pathways of Lipid Metabolism Fatty … Read more
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a crucial second messenger in cellular signaling, mediating extracellular signals to initiate specific intracellular responses. Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP) plays a key role in various physiological processes, including metabolism, gene regulation, and neuronal function. Structure of Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP) cAMP is synthesized from ATP and consists of: Adenine Base: A … Read more
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the primary energy currency of the cell, essential for powering various biological processes and ensuring efficient energy transfer within living organisms. Structure of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) consists of three fundamental components: Adenine Base A nitrogenous organic compound forming part of the nucleotide structure. Ribose Sugar A five-carbon sugar … Read more
