Human Anatomy & Physiology II

The adrenal glands are small, triangular-shaped glands located on top of both kidneys. They are part of the body’s endocrine system, producing hormones that are vital for life. Each adrenal gland is structurally and functionally divided into two main parts: the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla, each responsible for producing different sets of hormones. … Read more

The parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands in the neck that play a crucial role in calcium homeostasis, which is essential for various bodily functions including bone health, muscle function, and nerve signaling. Humans typically have four parathyroid glands, though the number can vary, located on the back of the thyroid gland in the neck. … Read more

The Thyroid gland is a vital hormone gland that plays a major role in the metabolism, growth, and development of the human body. It helps to regulate many body functions by constantly releasing a steady amount of thyroid hormones into the bloodstream. Located in the front part of the neck below the Adam’s apple, it … Read more

The pituitary gland, often referred to as the “master gland,” plays a pivotal role in regulating vital body functions and the endocrine system. It is a small, pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain, just behind the bridge of the nose, in a bony structure called the Sella turcica. The gland is divided … Read more

Mechanism of hormone action involves complex biochemical processes that allow hormones to regulate various physiological functions in the body. Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream, where they travel to target cells or organs to exert their effects. Mechanism of Hormone Action can be broadly classified into two types based on … Read more

Endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs in the body responsible for producing, storing, and secreting hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate a wide range of physiological processes, such as growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress response. The endocrine system plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis in the body and works … Read more

Several kidney disorders can impair kidney function and overall health. Common kidney disorders include: Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) Cause: Sudden loss of kidney function due to factors like reduced blood flow, direct kidney damage, or urine flow blockage. Key Points: Requires rapid intervention to prevent permanent damage. Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) Cause: Gradual loss of … Read more

The Renin-Angiotensin System (RAS) regulates blood pressure, fluid balance, and electrolyte homeostasis, with critical roles in kidney function and cardiovascular health. Components of the RAS: Renin: Released by the juxtaglomerular cells in response to low blood pressure, low blood volume, or low sodium. Angiotensinogen: A protein produced by the liver that is converted to angiotensin … Read more

kidneys play a crucial role in maintaining the body’s acid-base balance, a vital aspect of homeostasis, by regulating the pH of the blood. The normal pH range of blood is tightly regulated between 7.35 and 7.45, and the kidneys contribute to maintaining this balance by excreting acid or base and reabsorbing bicarbonate (HCO3-) from the … Read more