Adrenaline (also known as Epinephrine) a hormone and neurotransmitter produced by the adrenal glands, located on top of the kidneys. It plays a key role in the body’s “fight or flight” response by increasing heart rate, expanding airways, dilating pupils, and mobilizing energy stores. It prepares the body to respond quickly to stressful or dangerous … Read more
Definition of Reduction: Reduction is the gain of electrons or loss of oxygen, often resulting in undesirable changes in drug activity or color. Examples: Example Reaction (Reduction of Nitro Compounds): RNO₂ + 6[H] → RNH₂ + 2H₂O Example Reaction (Reduction of Ketones to Alcohols): RCOR’ + 2[H] → RCHOH–R’ Prevention Strategies: Incorporate antioxidants or reducing … Read more
Definition: It is a chemical change involving electron loss, oxygen addition, or an increase in oxidation number during a reaction This process is essential in energy release, biological metabolism, corrosion, and many industrial applications. Mechanism: Free radicals generated by heat, light, or metal ions initiate chain reactions, resulting in oxidative degradation. Examples: Example Reaction (Phenol … Read more
Definition of Hydrolysis: Hydrolysis is the decomposition or breakdown of a compound due to its reaction with water. It is the most common form of chemical degradation in pharmaceuticals, especially for drugs containing esters, amides, lactones, and lactams. Mechanism: The drug molecule reacts with water, leading to cleavage of chemical bonds (e.g., ester bonds) and … Read more
Polymorphism is the ability of a solid material, particularly a drug, to exist in more than one crystalline form, each having distinct physical and chemical properties such as melting point, solubility, and stability. Polymorphism Types: Enantiotropic Polymorphs: Can reversibly transform from one form to another based on temperature or pressure. Monotropic Polymorphs: Irreversible transformation; one … Read more
Flow properties describe how powders or granules move under force, critical for efficient processing in pharmaceutical and industrial applications. Good flow properties ensure uniform mixing, accurate dosing, and smooth manufacturing, reducing defects and improving product quality. Definition: The ability of powder particles to flow under gravity or mechanical force. Factors Affecting Flow: Particle Size: Fine … Read more
Particle size and shape are critical physical parameters in pre-formulation studies that significantly influence the behavior and performance of pharmaceutical dosage forms. Particle size and shape determine the surface area, flowability, dissolution rate, and bioavailability of a drug, making them critical factors in pre-formulation and product design. Particle Size: Definition: Refers to the diameter or … Read more
Physical Form: Crystalline vs. Amorphous State- crystalline is ordered, amorphous is disordered. Physical form: Crystalline vs. Amorphous state indicates whether a drug has an ordered (crystalline) or disordered (amorphous) molecular structure, influencing formulation. The physical form of a drug describes its structural arrangement at the molecular level, which directly affects its solubility, stability, and bioavailability. … Read more
Study of Physicochemical Characteristics of Drug Substances Study of physicochemical characteristics of drug substances involves analyzing solubility, pKa, stability, and other properties of drug. These characteristics influence the drug’s behavior during formulation, processing, and storage, as well as its bioavailability and therapeutic performance. Key Physicochemical Characteristics of Drugs: Physical Properties: Physical form (crystalline vs. amorphous) … Read more
The primary goals and objectives of Pre-formulation studies are: Understand the Drug’s Characteristics: To determine the physical and chemical properties of the drug substance. To understand how these properties influence the drug’s performance, stability, and compatibility. Support Formulation Development: To guide the selection of excipients, processes, and packaging materials for dosage form development. To identify … Read more
