Acid-base indicators are substances that change color depending on the pH of the solution they are in. They are typically weak organic acids or bases that exhibit different colors in their protonated and deprotonated forms. These indicators are crucial in titrations as they help signal the endpoint of the reaction by undergoing a visible color … Read more
Types of microbial contaminants include a diverse range of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. Bacteria in Types of Microbial Contaminants: Gram-Positive Bacteria Examples: Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis. Characteristics: Resistant to drying; some form spores. Gram-Negative Bacteria Examples: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli. Characteristics: Often found in water; can be resistant to preservatives. Fungi: … Read more
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons characterized by the presence of at least one carbon-carbon double bond (C=C), giving them distinct properties and reactivity patterns compared to their saturated counterparts, the alkanes. Their general formula is CnH2n, indicating they have fewer hydrogen atoms relative to alkanes. This section delves into the nomenclature, physical and chemical properties, and … Read more
Halogenation of Alkanes Introduction: Halogenation of alkanes is a chemical reaction where hydrogen atoms in an alkane are replaced by halogen atoms through a free radical mechanism. This process is crucial in organic chemistry for the functionalization of alkanes and the synthesis of halogenated compounds. Mechanism: The reaction proceeds in three steps: initiation, propagation, and … Read more
SP³ Hybridization Introduction: SP³ hybridization is fundamental in understanding the molecular structure and bonding in alkanes, which are the simplest type of organic compounds. This concept explains how carbon can form four equivalent bonds, leading to the formation of saturated hydrocarbons. Let’s delve deeper into this concept and its implications for the structure of alkanes. … Read more
Alkanes, the simplest and most fundamental class of hydrocarbons, are characterized by their single covalent bonds between carbon atoms. This section delves into the methods of preparation, key chemical reactions, and the diverse applications of alkanes. General Methods of Preparation Catalytic Hydrogenation: Alkenes and alkynes are converted to alkanes by the addition of hydrogen in … Read more
Alkanes Definition and Classification Alkanes, also known as paraffins, are the simplest class of hydrocarbons, consisting only of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) atoms with single covalent bonds. The general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2. Types of Alkanes Straight-chain (Normal) Alkanes: Carbon atoms connected in a linear sequence without branches. Denoted as “n-” (e.g., n-pentane). … Read more
Limit tests is an analytical method used to determine whether the concentration of a specific impurity or substance in a pharmaceutical product is below a predefined acceptable limit. It ensures the quality, safety, and efficacy of the drug by controlling potentially harmful impurities. Types of Limit Tests: Qualitative Limit Tests: Provide a pass/fail result, indicating … Read more
Factors Affecting Microbial Spoilage is influenced by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic Factors Affecting Microbial Spoilage Water Activity (aw) Definition: The availability of water for microbial growth. Impact: Higher aw values support microbial proliferation. Control: Reducing aw through drying or adding humectants. pH Definition: Acidity or alkalinity of the product. Impact: Most … Read more
Sources of microbial contaminants include sewage, animal waste, agricultural runoff, and contaminated water supplies. 1. Raw Materials as a Sources of microbial contaminants: Water: Used in formulations can be a significant source of microbial contamination if not properly treated. Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs): May harbour contaminants from their source or during processing. Excipients: Ingredients like … Read more
