Sickle Cell Anemia Introduction Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation in the HBB gene, which encodes the beta-globin subunit of hemoglobin. This mutation leads to the production of abnormal hemoglobin known as hemoglobin S (HbS). Under low oxygen conditions, HbS polymerizes, causing red blood cells (RBCs) to become rigid and … Read more
Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures due to abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Seizures can vary in type and severity, ranging from brief lapses in attention or muscle jerks to severe and prolonged convulsions. Causes of Epilepsy Genetic Factors: Certain types of epilepsy are linked to genetic mutations. Structural … Read more
Chronic renal failure, also known as chronic kidney disease (CKD), is a gradual and progressive decline in kidney function that occurs over months to years. CKD can eventually lead to end-stage renal disease (ESRD), in which the kidneys are no longer able to function adequately to maintain the body’s homeostasis. ESRD requires renal replacement therapy, … Read more
Acute renal failure, also known as acute kidney injury (AKI), is a sudden and rapid decline in kidney function that occurs over a short period, usually within hours to days. It can result in the buildup of waste products, electrolyte imbalances, and fluid retention in the body, which can be life-threatening if not promptly treated. … Read more
Chronic Obstructive Airway Diseases Introduction Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a group of progressive lung diseases characterized by persistent airflow limitation and increased inflammation in the airways. It primarily includes two main conditions: Chronic Bronchitis: Inflammation of the bronchi leading to increased mucus production and airway narrowing, resulting in a persistent cough often called … Read more
Asthma is a chronic respiratory condition characterized by inflammation and narrowing of the airways (bronchi) that carry air in and out of the lungs. This inflammation and constriction can cause episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing, particularly at night or early in the morning. Asthma affects people of all ages, but it often … Read more
Introduction of Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis is a condition characterized by the buildup of plaques made of fat, cholesterol, and other substances in the arteries, leading to narrowed and hardened arteries. Types Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): Affects the arteries supplying blood to the heart. Carotid Artery Disease: Affects the arteries supplying blood to the brain. Peripheral Artery … Read more
Introduction to Angina: Angina, or anginal pectoris, is chest pain or discomfort that occurs when the heart muscle doesn’t get enough oxygen-rich blood. It is a symptom of underlying coronary artery disease (CAD). Types Stable Angina: Occurrence: Predictably with physical exertion or emotional stress. Relief: Rest or nitroglycerin. Unstable Angina: Occurrence: Unpredictably, may occur at … Read more
Myocardial infarction (MI), or heart attack, occurs when blood flow to a part of the heart is blocked for a long enough time to cause damage or death of the heart muscle. Types ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction (STEMI): Severity: Severe type where a major coronary artery is completely blocked. ECG Changes: ST-segment elevation on the … Read more
Congestive heart failure (CHF), also known simply as heart failure, is a condition in which the heart is unable to pump blood effectively, leading to inadequate blood flow and oxygen delivery to the body’s organs and tissues. The term “congestive” refers to the accumulation of fluid that can occur in the lungs and other parts … Read more
