Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is a common condition in which the force of blood against the artery walls is consistently too high. Over time, this increased pressure can damage blood vessels and lead to various complications, including heart disease, stroke, and kidney failure. Blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) and … Read more
Adaptation and Cell Injury, the basic units of life, are constantly exposed to various physical, chemical, and biological stimuli. While many of these stimuli are benign and essential for normal cell function, others can be harmful and lead to cell injury. Understanding how cells respond to these injurious stimuli is fundamental to comprehending various pathological … Read more
Atherosclerosis is a chronic disease characterized by the buildup of lipids, inflammatory cells, and fibrous elements in large arteries. This Atherosclerosis process leads to the hardening and narrowing of arterial walls, which can result in serious cardiovascular events. Below is an overview of atherosclerosis pathophysiology: Endothelial Injury Cause: Damage to the endothelial cells lining arterial walls … Read more
The basic principles of wound healing in the skin involve a series of biological events aimed at repairing damaged tissue and restoring skin integrity. These can be divided into four overlapping phases: Hemostasis: Immediate Response: Occurs immediately after injury to stop bleeding. Clot Formation: Blood vessels constrict, platelets aggregate to form a platelet plug, and … Read more
Mediators Inflammation is regulated by various chemical mediators that orchestrate the inflammatory response. The Mediators can be derived from cells or plasma and have different roles in initiating and sustaining inflammation. Top of Form Its inflammation are substances that play key roles in initiating and regulating inflammatory responses. Main Types of Inflammatory Mediators Histamine Source: … Read more
Mechanism of Inflammation is a multi-step process involving changes in vascular permeability, blood flow, and the migration of white blood cells (WBCs) to the site of injury or infection. Mechanism of Inflammation to Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for developing treatments that can modulate the inflammatory response. Key Mechanisms 1. Alteration in Vascular Permeability and … Read more
Electrolyte Imbalance occur when the levels of essential electrolytes (minerals that carry an electric charge) in the body become too high or too low. Electrolyte Imbalance play crucial roles in various physiological processes, including maintaining fluid balance, regulating nerve and muscle function, and maintaining proper pH levels. Common electrolytes include sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, and … Read more
Acidosis and alkalosis are conditions resulting from an imbalance in the body’s acid-base homeostasis, affecting the pH level of the blood and other body fluids. The normal blood pH range is 7.35 to 7.45. A pH below 7.35 indicates acidosis, while a pH above 7.45 indicates alkalosis. Acidosis Acidosis occurs due to an excess of … Read more
Adaptive changes are modifications that cells undergo in response to chronic stress or injurious stimuli, allowing them to survive and maintain function. These changes can be either physiological (normal) or pathological (abnormal). The main types of adaptive changes include atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and dysplasia. 1. Atrophy Description: Reduction in cell size and function due … Read more
Morphology of cell injury refers to the structural and functional changes in cells due to harmful stimuli or stressors. These Morphology of cell injury changes can be reversible or irreversible, observable through various microscopy and biochemical techniques. Reversible Cell Injury Reversible cell injury involves changes that can be reversed if the stressor is removed. Common … Read more
