Preparation of Copper Sulfate: Copper sulfate can be prepared by: Reacting copper metal with hot concentrated sulfuric acid: Cu + 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O Reacting copper oxide with dilute sulfuric acid: CuO + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O Properties of Copper Sulfate: Physical Appearance: Blue crystalline solid when hydrated (CuSO₄·5H₂O) and a … Read more
Overview of Emetics: Emetics are agents used to induce vomiting, primarily to remove toxic substances from the stomach before absorption into the bloodstream. They work by activating the body’s natural vomiting reflex, involving both the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract. Mechanism of Action of Emetics: Vomiting, or emesis, is regulated by the brain’s … Read more
Preparation of Ammonium chloride: Ammonium chloride can be prepared by the reaction of ammonia (NH₃) with hydrochloric acid (HCl). The chemical reaction is as follows: NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl Properties of Ammonium chloride: Physical Appearance: White crystalline solid. Solubility: Soluble in water and has a cooling, salty taste. Nature: Ionic compound. Melting Point: 338°C … Read more
Introduction to Expectorants: Expectorants are drugs that facilitate the expulsion of mucus from the respiratory tract by increasing mucus production and/or reducing its viscosity. They are used to treat coughs and congestion associated with common colds, bronchitis, and other respiratory illnesses. Classification of Expectorants Expectorants can be classified into two main categories: Direct-acting expectorants: These … Read more
Preparation of Iodine: It is usually extracted from natural sources such as seaweed or brine, which contain iodide ions. The iodide is oxidized to iodine using an oxidizing agent such as chlorine: 2I− + Cl2 → I2 + 2Cl− Properties of Iodine: Dark purple-black solid with a metallic cluster. Slightly soluble in water but highly … Read more
Preparation of Chlorinated Lime: Prepared by passing chlorine gas through slaked lime (calcium hydroxide): 2Ca(OH)2 + 2Cl2 → Ca(ClO)2 + CaCl2 + 2H2O2 Properties: White to grayish-white powder with a chlorine-like odor. Soluble in water, forming a clear solution. Strong oxidizing and bleaching agent. Chemical formula: Ca(ClO)₂. Uses: As a disinfectant for water purification and … Read more
Preparation of Hydrogen Peroxide: Industrially, It is prepared by the anthraquinone process, where anthraquinone is hydrogenated to form anthrahydroquinone, which reacts with oxygen to produce H2O2: $\mathrm{C_6H_4(CO)_2(CH_2)_2 + H_2 \rightarrow C_6H_4(COH)_2(CH_2)_2}$ $\mathrm{C_6H_4(COH)_2(CH_2)_2 + O_2 \rightarrow C_6H_4(CO)_2(CH_2)_2 + H_2O_2}$ Properties of Hydrogen Peroxide: Colorless liquid with a slightly sharp odor. Miscible with water in all proportions. … Read more
Preparation of Boric Acid: It is prepared by reacting borax (sodium tetraborate decahydrate) with a mineral acid such as hydrochloric acid: $\mathrm{Na_2B_4O_7 \cdot 10H_2O + 2HCl \rightarrow 4H_3BO_3 + 2NaCl + 5H_2O}$ Properties of Boric Acid: White, odorless crystalline powder. Slightly soluble in cold water and more soluble in hot water. Weakly acidic, with mild … Read more
Preparation of Potassium Permanganate: it is industrially prepared by reacting manganese dioxide (MnO₂) with potassium hydroxide (KOH) and a strong oxidizing agent like potassium nitrate (KNO₃) or oxygen. The mixture is heated to form potassium manganate (K₂MnO₄), which is then oxidized to potassium permanganate: $2\mathrm{MnO}_2 + 4\mathrm{KOH} + \mathrm{O}_2 \rightarrow 2\mathrm{K}_2\mathrm{MnO}_4 + 2\mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{O}_2$ $3\mathrm{K}_2\mathrm{MnO}_4 + … Read more
Introduction to Antimicrobials: Antimicrobials are agents that kill microorganisms or inhibit their growth, playing a critical role in treating and preventing infections in humans, animals, and plants. This group includes antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, and antiparasitics, each with varying mechanisms of action depending on the type of microorganism they target. Mechanism of Action of Antimicrobials: Antimicrobials … Read more
