Preparation of Oral Rehydration Salt ORS is a balanced mixture of electrolytes and glucose, formulated to prevent and treat dehydration caused by diarrhea or other conditions leading to fluid loss. Typical ORS Composition: Sodium chloride (NaCl) Potassium chloride (KCl) Trisodium citrate dihydrate (Na₃C₆H₅O₇·2H₂O) or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) WHO-Recommended Composition: Sodium chloride: 2.6 g … Read more
Preparation of Calcium Gluconate : Prepared by reacting calcium carbonate or calcium hydroxide with gluconic acid (obtained through the fermentation of glucose by bacteria or fungi, such as Aspergillus niger): CaCO3 + 2C6H12O7 → Ca(C6H11O7)2 + CO2 Ca (OH)2 + 2C6H12O7 → Ca(C6H11O7)2 + 2H2O Properties of Calcium Gluconate : White or off-white, odorless, crystalline … Read more
Preparation of Electrolytes Used in Replacement Therapy (KCl) Natural Sources: Primarily obtained from the extraction of minerals like sylvite and carnallite, and from the evaporation of brine from saltwater bodies. Chemical Production: Can be produced through a chemical reaction between potassium hydroxide or potassium carbonate and hydrochloric acid: KOH + HCl → KCl + H2O … Read more
Preparation of Electrolytes Used in Replacement Therapy Natural Sources: Sodium chloride, commonly known as table salt, is primarily obtained through the evaporation of seawater or brine from salt mines. Chemical Production: It can be produced through a chemical reaction between sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate and hydrochloric acid: NaOH+HCl→NaCl+H2O Na2CO3+2HCl→2NaCl+H2O+CO2 Properties of Electrolytes Used in … Read more
Introduction to Electrolytes Electrolytes are ions that conduct electricity when dissolved in water. They play essential roles in physiological processes, such as maintaining fluid balance, nerve conduction, and muscle function. Electrolytes are found both inside and outside cells, with specific concentrations necessary for proper cell function. They contribute to various bodily functions, including maintaining fluid … Read more
Methods of adjusting isotonicity of a solution is essential in pharmaceutical and medical applications to prevent cellular damage or discomfort. The goal is to match the osmotic pressure of the solution to physiological fluids, such as blood or tears (~290 mOsmol/kg). Class I Method (Cryoscopic Method): Based on Freezing Point Depression: Uses the formula: $ΔT=K_f×m$ Where: … Read more
For calculations of Isotonicity in a solution (matching the osmotic pressure of physiological fluids like blood or tears, ~290 mOsmol/kg), you need to calculate and adjust the solution’s osmolarity using an isotonicity-adjusting substance. Steps for Calculations of Isotonicity: 1) Determine the Osmolarity of the Test Solution: Calculate the molar concentration of each solute and consider how … Read more
Measurements of Tonicity can be assessed by measuring osmolality or osmolarity, which indicate the concentration of solute particles in a solution. Two common methods for measuring osmolality, and subsequently assessing tonicity, are the haemolytic method and the cryoscopic method. Haemolytic Method of Measurements of tonicity: A biological technique that assesses the tonicity of a solution … Read more
Tonicity refers to the relative concentration of solutes in a solution compared to another solution separated by a semipermeable membrane, like a cell membrane. It measures the osmotic pressure gradient between the two solutions and influences the movement of water across the membrane, affecting cellular behavior. Types of Tonicity Isotonic: Definition: The solution has the … Read more
Buffered isotonic solutions maintain both a stable pH and an osmotic pressure similar to that of physiological fluids, such as blood and tears. These solutions are essential in pharmaceutical and medical applications (e.g., injections, ophthalmic, and nasal preparations) to minimize irritation and prevent tissue damage during administration. Key Properties of Buffered Isotonic Solutions: 1) Buffering … Read more
