Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry III

Claisen-Schmidt Condensation forms α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds by reacting aromatic aldehydes with ketones in base. The Claisen–Schmidt condensation is a base-catalyzed aldol condensation between an aromatic aldehyde and a ketone (or sometimes another aldehyde) with α-hydrogens, typically resulting in an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound. General Reaction: Aromatic aldehyde  +  Aliphatic ketone —(Base/heat) →  α,β-unsaturated ketone  +  H₂O … Read more

Schmidt Rearrangement converts carboxylic acids, ketones, or aldehydes into amines and amides using hydrazoic acid. The Schmidt rearrangement is a chemical reaction involving the reaction of hydrazoic acid (HN₃) with carbonyl compounds (like carboxylic acids, ketones, or aldehydes) in the presence of acid to yield amines, amides, or nitriles, depending on the substrate. Overview of … Read more

Beckmann Rearrangement converts oximes into amides or lactams under acidic conditions, important in drug and polymer synthesis. Overview of Beckmann Rearrangement: The Beckmann rearrangement converts oximes into amides via acid-catalyzed rearrangement. Generally used for converting ketoximes into N-substituted amides. If starting from aldoximes, the product is a primary amide. General Reaction: R1–C=NOH–R2   →   R1–CONH–R2 (in … Read more

Dakin Reaction converts ortho- and para-hydroxy aromatic aldehydes or ketones to dihydroxybenzenes using hydrogen peroxide. Overview of Dakin Reaction: The Dakin reaction involves the oxidation of aryl aldehydes or aryl ketones, especially those with electron-donating groups (–OH or –OR) in the ortho or para position, to phenols using hydrogen peroxide in basic medium. Reagents: Hydrogen … Read more

Metal Hydride Reduction with NaBH₄ and LiAlH₄ converts carbonyls to alcohols, widely used in organic and medicinal chemistry. Overview: Metal hydrides like sodium borohydride (NaBH₄) and lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH₄) are used to reduce carbonyl compounds (aldehydes, ketones, esters, carboxylic acids, etc.) to alcohols. Sodium Borohydride (NaBH₄) Structure: Na⁺[BH₄]⁻ (a tetrahedral borohydride ion) Solubility & … Read more

This article explains about Oppenauer Oxidation oxidizes secondary alcohols to ketones using aluminium alkoxide and ketone acceptors. Overview of Oppenauer Oxidation: Oppenauer oxidation is a mild, selective oxidation method used to convert secondary alcohols into ketones (and sometimes primary alcohols into aldehydes) under non-aqueous, basic conditions. Reagents: Aluminum isopropoxide (Al(O-iPr)₃) – catalyst Excess ketone (commonly … Read more

This article explains about Wolff-Kishner Reduction converts aldehydes and ketones to hydrocarbons under strong base and heat. Type: Strong base reduction Purpose of Wolff-Kishner Reduction: Converts aldehydes and ketones to alkanes, like the Clemmensen reduction. Basic conditions, so suitable for acid-sensitive compounds. Reagents: Hydrazine (NH₂NH₂) Strong base (e.g., KOH) Heat Often done in high-boiling solvents … Read more

Birch Reduction reduces aromatic rings to 1,4-dihydro derivatives using sodium and liquid ammonia in synthesis. Purpose of Birch Reduction: Reduces aromatic rings (like benzene) to non-conjugated cyclohexadienes. Partial reduction – breaks aromaticity but doesn’t fully saturate the ring. Reagents: Alkali metal (Na, Li, or K) in liquid ammonia (NH₃) Proton source (like ethanol or tert-butanol) … Read more

Clemmensen Reduction transforms carbonyl compounds into hydrocarbons using Zn–Hg and HCl in organic synthesis. Type: Metal-acid reduction Purpose of Clemmensen Reduction: Reduces aldehydes and ketones to alkanes. Used especially for carbonyl groups adjacent to aromatic rings (aryl ketones). Reagents of Clemmensen Reduction: Zinc amalgam (Zn(Hg)) Concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) Reaction is acidic Mechanism (Simplified Concept): … Read more