Definition of Drug Dependence: Dependence is a state where the body adapts to the presence of a drug, and withdrawal symptoms occur upon stopping the drug. Types: Physical Dependence Characterized by withdrawal symptoms upon drug discontinuation Result of neuroadaptation Common with: opioids, benzodiazepines, alcohol Examples of Withdrawal Symptoms: Opioids: Yawning, cramps, diarrhea, mydriasis Alcohol: Tremors, … Read more
Definition of Drug Tolerance: Tolerances is a reduced response to a drug following repeated use, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect. Types of Tolerance: Pharmacokinetic (Metabolic) Tolerance Increased drug metabolism reduces drug levels Example: Chronic alcohol use induces CYP2E1, increasing alcohol metabolism Pharmacodynamic (Cellular) Tolerance Downregulation or desensitization of receptors Example: Decreased μ-opioid receptor … Read more
Definition of Drug Abuse: Drug abuse is the intentional use of a drug for non-medical purposes, often to experience its psychoactive effects, leading to social, legal, or health problems. Characteristics: Use outside of medical supervision Taking higher doses than prescribed Using illicit drugs Often the first step toward addiction Examples: Using opioids for euphoria Using … Read more
Definition of Drug Addiction: It is a chronic, relapsing disorder characterized by: Compulsive drug-seeking behavior Loss of control over drug use Continued use despite harmful consequences Key Feature of Drug Addiction: It involves psychological and neurobiological changes, particularly in the mesolimbic dopamine system (brain reward system). Neurobiological Mechanism: Addiction is mainly mediated through the mesolimbic … Read more
Opioid Antagonists are drugs that block opioid receptors, reversing opioid effects and treating overdose or dependence. Definition: Drugs that block opioid receptors, reversing the effects of opioids. They have high affinity but no intrinsic activity at opioid receptors. Main Opioid Antagonists: Naloxone Pure opioid antagonist (high affinity for μ-receptors) Rapid onset, short duration (1–2 hours) … Read more
Opioid Analgesics are powerful pain-relieving drugs that act on opioid receptors to reduce moderate to severe pain. Definition of Opioid Analgesics: Opioid analgesics are drugs that relieve moderate to severe pain by binding to opioid receptors in the central and peripheral nervous system. They mimic the action of endogenous opioids like endorphins and enkephalins. Opioid … Read more
Nootropics (“Smart Drugs”) are cognitive enhancers that improve memory, focus, learning, and mental performance. Definition of Nootropics (“Smart Drugs”): Nootropics are agents that enhance cognitive functions such as memory, learning, creativity, and attention, especially in individuals with cognitive impairments. Some also show mild effects in healthy individuals. Common Nootropic Agents: Cholinesterase Inhibitors Examples: Donepezil, Rivastigmine, … Read more
CNS Stimulants are drugs that enhance brain activity, increasing alertness, focus, energy, and sometimes improving mood and performance. Definition of CNS Stimulants: CNS stimulants are drugs that increase activity of the central nervous system, particularly enhancing alertness, attention, wakefulness, and in some cases, motor activity. They act primarily by increasing levels of dopamine, norepinephrine, or … Read more
Drugs used in Alzheimer’s Disease aim to manage symptoms, slow cognitive decline, and improve daily functioning. These include cholinesterase inhibitors that enhance acetylcholine levels and NMDA receptor antagonists that regulate glutamate activity. By targeting neurotransmitter imbalances, drugs used in Alzheimer’s Disease help improve memory, thinking, and behavior, offering better quality of life for patients. Cholinesterase … Read more
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder that gradually impairs memory, thinking, and behavior. Marked by progressive cognitive decline, personality changes, and loss of independence, it is the most common cause of dementia in older adults. With no complete cure, early diagnosis, proper treatment, and supportive care play a key role in slowing progression … Read more
