Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, crucial for learning, memory, and brain function. Function of Glutamate: Primary excitatory neurotransmitter. Crucial for synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. Receptors: Ionotropic: NMDA (N-Methyl-D-Aspartate) AMPA Kainate Metabotropic: mGluRs (G-protein-coupled) Synthesis Pathway of Glutamate: Glutamine (from astrocytes) → Glutamate Enzyme: Glutaminase Glutamate is packed into vesicles by … Read more
γ-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS, reducing neuronal excitability and promoting relaxation. Function of γ-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA): Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. Reduces neuronal excitability and prevents overstimulation. Maintains balance with excitatory glutamate. Receptors: GABA-A (ionotropic): Ligand-gated Cl⁻ channels → fast inhibition. GABA-B (metabotropic): G-protein-coupled → opens K⁺ channels, … Read more
Neurohumoral Transmission in the CNS Neurohumoral transmission refers to the chemical communication between neurons via neurotransmitters across synapses. Neurohumoral transmission in the CNS involves chemical messengers like neurotransmitters regulating brain signaling. Steps in CNS Neurotransmission: Synthesis of neurotransmitter in the presynaptic neuron. Storage in synaptic vesicles. Release into synaptic cleft via exocytosis (triggered by Ca²⁺ … Read more
Introduction to CNS: The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord, controlling body functions, sensations, thoughts, and actions. Introduction to CNS The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, which coordinate all body activities. Drugs acting on the CNS affect mood, behavior, sensory perception, consciousness, motor functions, and vital body functions. … Read more
Drugs for glaucoma include beta-blockers, prostaglandins, and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors to lower eye pressure. Pharmacological Goal: To reduce intraocular pressure by: Decreasing aqueous humor production, or Increasing aqueous humor outflow Classes of Drugs Used in Glaucoma: Prostaglandin Analogues (Increase outflow) Latanoprost, Travoprost, Bimatoprost Mechanism: Increase uveoscleral outflow Side Effects: Iris pigmentation, eyelash growth Beta-blockers (Decrease … Read more
Glaucoma is an eye disorder marked by increased intraocular pressure that can damage the optic nerve and cause vision loss. A group of eye conditions that damage the optic nerve, often related to high intraocular pressure (IOP). Types of Glaucoma: Open-angle glaucoma (most common, chronic) Angle-closure glaucoma (sudden, emergency) Normal-tension glaucoma Symptoms of Glaucoma: Often … Read more
Drugs for Myasthenia Gravis include cholinesterase inhibitors, immunosuppressants, and corticosteroids to improve muscle strength. Pharmacological Goal: To increase acetylcholine availability at the neuromuscular junction and/or suppress the autoimmune response. Main Classes of Drugs: Cholinesterase Inhibitors (First-line therapy): Mechanism: Inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, increasing ACh levels at the neuromuscular junction. Examples: Pyridostigmine (preferred) Neostigmine Adverse Effects: … Read more
Myasthenia Gravis (MG) is an autoimmune disorder causing muscle weakness due to impaired neuromuscular transmission. A chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disorder that causes weakness in the skeletal muscles. Cause of Myasthenia Gravis (MG): Autoantibodies block or destroy acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. Symptoms of Myasthenia Gravis (MG): Muscle weakness that worsens with activity (fatigue) Drooping … Read more
Local anesthetic agents block nerve conduction at the site, causing temporary loss of sensation without unconsciousness. Definition of Local Anesthetic Agents: Local anesthetics (LAs) are drugs that block nerve conduction when applied locally to nerve tissues. They reversibly inhibit the perception of pain without causing loss of consciousness. Mechanism of Action: Local anesthetics work by: … Read more
Peripheral skeletal muscle relaxants reduce muscle spasms and tone by blocking neuromuscular activity. These are drugs that act peripherally on skeletal muscle to reduce muscle tone or cause muscle paralysis. They do not have central nervous system (CNS) effects, unlike centrally acting muscle relaxants. Classification of Peripheral Skeletal Muscle Relaxants Non-Depolarizing Neuromuscular Blockers (Competitive antagonists) … Read more
