Principle of Transmission Electron Microscopy Transmission Electron Microscopy works by transmitting a beam of electrons through an ultra-thin specimen. As electrons interact with the specimen, the transmitted electrons form an image. Due to the short wavelength of electrons, TEM can resolve details as small as 0.1 nm, making it suitable for studying cellular ultrastructure and … Read more
A pharmacopoeia is an authoritative collection of standards for the quality, purity, and strength of drugs, excipients, and dosage forms. It provides guidelines on the composition, preparation, storage, and labeling of pharmaceutical products. Pharmacopoeias are maintained by regulatory authorities and are essential references for pharmacists, chemists, and healthcare professionals. History of Pharmacopoeia: Early Compilations: Ancient … Read more
Definition of Significant figures: Significant figures are the digits in a measurement that carry meaning and contribute to its precision. They include all known digits plus one estimated digit. Rules for Significant Figures: All non-zero digits are significant. Any zeros between significant digits are significant. Leading zeros (zeros to the left of the first non-zero … Read more
Accuracy and precision, significant figures are fundamental concepts in scientific measurement and calculations. Here’s a breakdown of each term: Accuracy Definition: Accuracy refers to how close a measured value is to the true or accepted value of the quantity being measured. Example: If the true value of the mass of an object is 50.0 g, … Read more
Errors in Analytical Chemistry can impact the accuracy and precision of results. Understanding their sources and types helps minimize their effect and improve the reliability of data. Sources of Errors in Analytical Chemistry: Instrumental Errors: Caused by limitations or malfunctions of instruments (e.g., balances, pipettes, spectrophotometers). Contributing factors: calibration errors, temperature fluctuations, mechanical issues. Methodological … Read more
Preparation and standardization of solutions is essential for accurate chemical analysis. Below are step-by-step guides for preparing and standardizing the given molar and normal solutions. 1. Oxalic Acid (H₂C₂O₄) Solution Molecular weight: 126.07 g/mol Normality: For reactions with KMnO₄ (5e⁻), Oxalic acid is 2N (since it donates two electrons in redox reactions). Preparation of 0.1 … Read more
A standard solution is a solution of known concentration used in analytical techniques like titrations and spectrophotometry to determine unknown concentrations and ensure accuracy. Primary Standards: Primary standards are high-purity substances used to prepare standard solutions with accurate concentrations. Key characteristics of primary standards include: High purity: Typically at least 99.9 Stability: Chemically stable and … Read more
Concentration with formula refers to the amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution. There are several methods to express concentration, each with a specific formula. 1. Mass Percentage (w/w): Mass percentage is the mass of solute in a given mass of solution, expressed as a percentage. Formula: $\text{Mass %} = … Read more
There are numerous analytical techniques used in pharmaceutical analysis, each with its specific applications and advantages. Most commonly analytical techniques used in pharmaceutical analysis: 1. Spectroscopy: Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) Spectroscopy: Analyzes the absorption of UV and visible light by molecules, providing information on concentration, purity, and molecular structure. Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy: Identifies functional groups and chemical … Read more
Scope of pharmaceutical analysis is a specialized branch of analytical chemistry focused on the identification, quantification, and determination of the quality, safety, and efficacy of pharmaceutical products. It involves the application of various analytical techniques and methodologies to ensure that drugs and other pharmaceutical substances adhere to established standards and regulatory requirements. Scope of Pharmaceutical … Read more
