Preparation and standardization of solutions is essential for accurate chemical analysis. Below are step-by-step guides for preparing and standardizing the given molar and normal solutions. 1. Oxalic Acid (H₂C₂O₄) Solution Molecular weight: 126.07 g/mol Normality: For reactions with KMnO₄ (5e⁻), Oxalic acid is 2N (since it donates two electrons in redox reactions). Preparation of 0.1 … Read more
A standard solution is a solution of known concentration used in analytical techniques like titrations and spectrophotometry to determine unknown concentrations and ensure accuracy. Primary Standards: Primary standards are high-purity substances used to prepare standard solutions with accurate concentrations. Key characteristics of primary standards include: High purity: Typically at least 99.9 Stability: Chemically stable and … Read more
Concentration with formula refers to the amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution. There are several methods to express concentration, each with a specific formula. 1. Mass Percentage (w/w): Mass percentage is the mass of solute in a given mass of solution, expressed as a percentage. Formula: $\text{Mass %} = … Read more
There are numerous analytical techniques used in pharmaceutical analysis, each with its specific applications and advantages. Most commonly analytical techniques used in pharmaceutical analysis: 1. Spectroscopy: Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) Spectroscopy: Analyzes the absorption of UV and visible light by molecules, providing information on concentration, purity, and molecular structure. Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy: Identifies functional groups and chemical … Read more
Scope of pharmaceutical analysis is a specialized branch of analytical chemistry focused on the identification, quantification, and determination of the quality, safety, and efficacy of pharmaceutical products. It involves the application of various analytical techniques and methodologies to ensure that drugs and other pharmaceutical substances adhere to established standards and regulatory requirements. Scope of Pharmaceutical … Read more
Storage Conditions: Shielding: Use appropriate shielding materials to reduce radiation exposure. Lead containers or bricks are suitable for gamma emitters, while plexiglass or acrylic is effective for beta emitters. Alpha emitters can be stored in sealed containers as they can be blocked by container walls or even paper. Ventilation: Store radioactive materials in well-ventilated areas … Read more
Radioisotopes are isotopes of an element with an unstable nucleus, causing them to emit radiation as they decay into more stable forms. Applications of Radioisotopes: Due to their radiation-emitting properties, radioisotopes are utilized in various fields: Medical Imaging and Treatment: Technetium-99m, Iodine-131, and Cobalt-60 are commonly used in diagnostic imaging and cancer treatment. Industrial Applications: … Read more
Half-life, denoted by ‘t₁/₂’, is the time required for half of the atoms in a radioactive sample to decay. It is a key measure of the stability of a radioactive isotope. Radioactive Decay: When a radioactive nucleus decays, it transforms into another element or isotope, emitting ionizing radiation. Decay is a random process, and the … Read more
Alpha, beta, and gamma radiations are types of nuclear radiation: alpha consists of heavy, charged particles with low penetration, beta of light electrons/positrons with moderate penetration, and gamma of high-energy waves with deep penetration. Alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) radiation are three common types of ionizing radiation emitted during radioactive decay. They vary … Read more
Radiopharmaceuticals contain radioactive isotopes used in nuclear medicine for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Accurate measurement of their radioactivity is essential for patient safety, regulatory compliance, and effective diagnostic or therapeutic procedures. Principles of Measurement of radioactivity Radioactivity is the release of energy from unstable atomic nuclei in the form of radiation. Units of Radioactivity: Becquerel … Read more
