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Classification of Colloids is based on phase systems like sols, gels, emulsions, and foams. Classification of Colloids depends on physical state, interaction, and nature of dispersed phase. Colloids can be classified in several ways: Based on the Physical State of Dispersed and Dispersion Phase: Dispersed Phase Dispersion Medium Name Example Solid Solid Solid sol Colored … Read more
Definition: Dispersed systems consist of two phases: Dispersed phase (internal phase): The substance that is dispersed. Dispersion medium (continuous phase): The substance in which the dispersed phase is distributed. Classification of Dispersed Systems: Dispersed systems are classified based on: Particle size of the dispersed phase Physical state of both the dispersed phase and dispersion medium … Read more
Isoquinoline is a benzopyridine heterocyclic compound significant in alkaloids, pharmaceuticals, and synthetic organic chemistry. Chemical Formula of Isoquinoline: C₉H₇N Physical Properties of Isoquinoline: Property Value Appearance Yellowish liquid Boiling Point ~243 °C Melting Point ~25 °C Solubility Slightly soluble in water Basicity pKa ~5.4 (slightly more basic than quinoline) Medicinal Uses: Found in benzylisoquinoline alkaloids … Read more
Reactions of Quinoline involve electrophilic substitution, nucleophilic substitution, oxidation, and reduction crucial in drug development. Reactions of Quinoline Electrophilic Substitution (EAS) Preferred Sites: C-5 and C-8 on the benzene ring (electron-rich) C-3 and C-4 are deactivated Typical Reactions: Nitration (mild): C-5 or C-8 Sulfonation: C-5 or C-8 Halogenation: Br₂ or Cl₂ at benzene ring positions … Read more
Synthesis of Quinoline covers Skraup, Doebner–Miller, Friedländer, and Combes routes with key reagents, mechanisms, and uses. Skraup Synthesis (classical method) Reactants: Aniline + glycerol + oxidizing acid (e.g., H₂SO₄ + nitrobenzene) Mechanism: Glycerol is dehydrated to acrolein, which condenses with aniline, followed by cyclization and oxidation. Reaction: Aniline + Glycerol + H₂SO₄ + Nitrobenzene → … Read more
Quinoline is a nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound widely used in antimalarial drugs, dyes, and medicinal chemistry research. Chemical Formula of Quinoline: C₉H₇N Physical Properties of Quinoline: Property Value Appearance Colorless to yellow liquid Boiling Point ~238 °C Melting Point ~-15 °C Solubility Slightly soluble in water Basicity Lower than pyridine (pKa ~4.9) Medicinal Uses: Core structure … Read more
Reactions of Pyridine include electrophilic substitution, nucleophilic substitution, oxidation, and reduction important in drug synthesis. Reactions of Pyridine Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution (EAS) Due to nitrogen’s electron-withdrawing nature, pyridine is much less reactive than benzene toward EAS. Preferred Positions: C-3 (meta) is the most reactive site for EAS (less destabilized intermediate). Deactivation: Protonation or complexation with … Read more
Synthesis of Pyridine covers Hantzsch, Kröhnke, and Bohlmann–Rahtz routes with reagents, mechanisms, and medicinal chemistry applications. Hantzsch Pyridine Synthesis (most common lab method) Reactants: Aldehyde + β-keto ester + ammonia Conditions: Reflux in ethanol Example: 2 CH₃COCH₂COOEt + CH₃CHO + NH₃ → Dihydropyridine → Pyridine (oxidation) The dihydropyridine intermediate is oxidized (e.g., with nitric acid … Read more
Phenylbutazone blocks COX enzymes, reducing prostaglandin synthesis to relieve pain and swelling. It is an NSAID used for arthritis, gout, and pain relief in inflammatory conditions. Chemical Formula: C₁₉H₂₀N₂O₂ Mechanism of Phenylbutazone: Potent non-selective COX inhibitor Strong anti-inflammatory effect Uses of Phenylbutazone: Ankylosing spondylitis (rare) Gout (historical) Side Effects: Aplastic anemia Agranulocytosis GI toxicity Notes: … Read more
Antipyrine is used as an analgesic and antipyretic, often in ear preparations for pain relief. It works by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis, reducing pain, fever, and inflammation. Chemical Formula: C₁₁H₁₂N₂O Mechanism of Antipyrine: COX inhibition Also acts as antipyretic and analgesic Uses of Antipyrine: Historical use for fever, pain Component in ear drop formulations today Side … Read more