B Pharmacy is a 4-year undergraduate program in India that provides comprehensive knowledge of drugs, healthcare, and pharmaceutical sciences. It prepares students for careers in the pharmaceutical industry, clinical research, and healthcare services.
This course builds a strong foundation for B Pharmacy Students all over the world.
Phase contrast microscopy is a technique that enhances the visibility of transparent and colorless specimens by converting subtle differences in the optical path length (caused by variations in refractive index and thickness) into variations in contrast. This allows for the observation of live, unstained cells, making internal structures visible without damaging or altering the specimen. … Read more
Electron microscopy offers much higher resolution than light microscopy by using electron beams instead of light. There are several types, each with unique principles and advantages. Types of Electron Microscopy: Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): Electrons pass through a thin specimen. Provides detailed images of internal structures. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): Electrons scan the specimen surface. … Read more
Dark field microscopy enhances the contrast of transparent and unstained specimens by illuminating them with light that does not enter the objective lens unless it is scattered by the specimen. This creates a bright image of the specimen against a dark background, making normally invisible structures visible. Procedure for Dark Field Microscopy Preparation of the … Read more
Principle of Transmission Electron Microscopy Transmission Electron Microscopy works by transmitting a beam of electrons through an ultra-thin specimen. As electrons interact with the specimen, the transmitted electrons form an image. Due to the short wavelength of electrons, TEM can resolve details as small as 0.1 nm, making it suitable for studying cellular ultrastructure and … Read more
A pharmacopoeia is an authoritative collection of standards for the quality, purity, and strength of drugs, excipients, and dosage forms. It provides guidelines on the composition, preparation, storage, and labeling of pharmaceutical products. Pharmacopoeias are maintained by regulatory authorities and are essential references for pharmacists, chemists, and healthcare professionals. History of Pharmacopoeia: Early Compilations: Ancient … Read more
Definition of Significant figures: Significant figures are the digits in a measurement that carry meaning and contribute to its precision. They include all known digits plus one estimated digit. Rules for Significant Figures: All non-zero digits are significant. Any zeros between significant digits are significant. Leading zeros (zeros to the left of the first non-zero … Read more
Accuracy and precision, significant figures are fundamental concepts in scientific measurement and calculations. Here’s a breakdown of each term: Accuracy Definition: Accuracy refers to how close a measured value is to the true or accepted value of the quantity being measured. Example: If the true value of the mass of an object is 50.0 g, … Read more
Errors in Analytical Chemistry can impact the accuracy and precision of results. Understanding their sources and types helps minimize their effect and improve the reliability of data. Sources of Errors in Analytical Chemistry: Instrumental Errors: Caused by limitations or malfunctions of instruments (e.g., balances, pipettes, spectrophotometers). Contributing factors: calibration errors, temperature fluctuations, mechanical issues. Methodological … Read more
Preparation and standardization of solutions is essential for accurate chemical analysis. Below are step-by-step guides for preparing and standardizing the given molar and normal solutions. 1. Oxalic Acid (H₂C₂O₄) Solution Molecular weight: 126.07 g/mol Normality: For reactions with KMnO₄ (5e⁻), Oxalic acid is 2N (since it donates two electrons in redox reactions). Preparation of 0.1 … Read more
A standard solution is a solution of known concentration used in analytical techniques like titrations and spectrophotometry to determine unknown concentrations and ensure accuracy. Primary Standards: Primary standards are high-purity substances used to prepare standard solutions with accurate concentrations. Key characteristics of primary standards include: High purity: Typically at least 99.9 Stability: Chemically stable and … Read more
